Trends in ambulance transports and costs among Medicare beneficiaries, 2007-2018.

BACKGROUND: The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate trends in ambulance utilization and costs among Medicare beneficiaries from 2007 to 2018. Community characteristics associated with ambulance use and costs are also explored. METHODS: Aggregated county-level fee-for-service (FFS) Medicare beneficiary claims data from 2007 to 2018 were used to assess ambulance transports per 1000 FFS Medicare beneficiaries and standardized inflation-adjusted ambulance costs. Multivariable linear mixed models were used to quantify trends in ambulance utilization and costs and to control for confounders. RESULTS: A total of 37,675 county-years were included from 2007 to 2018. Ambulance transports per 1000 beneficiaries increased 15% from 299 (95% CI: 291.63, 307.30) to 345 (95% CI: 336.91, 353.10) from 2007 to 2018. Inflation-adjusted standardized per user costs exhibited an increasing (1.04, 95% CI: 1.04, 1.05), but non-linear relationship (0.996, 95% CI: 0.996, 0.996) over time with costs peaking in 2012. Indicators of lower socioeconomic status (SES) were associated with increases in both ambulance events and costs (p < .0001). A higher prevalence of Medicare beneficiaries utilizing Skilled Nursing Facilities was associated with increased levels of ambulance events per 1000 beneficiaries (95% CI: 8.06, 10.63). Rural location was associated with a 38% increase in ambulance costs (95% CI 1.30-1.47) compared to urban location. CONCLUSIONS: Numerous policy solutions have been proposed to address growing ambulance costs in the Medicare program. While ambulance transports and costs continue to increase, a bend in the ambulance cost curve is detected suggesting that one or more policies altered Medicare ambulance costs, although utilization has continued to grow linearly. Ambulance use and costs vary significantly with community-level factors. As policy makers consider how to address growing ambulance use and costs, targeting identified community-level factors associated with greater costs and utilization, and their root causes, may offer a targeted approach to addressing current trends.

Healthcare for the Homeless (HCH) Projects and Medicaid Expansion.

Medicaid expansion was ruled optional in 2012 by the Supreme Court, which allowed some states to adopt it while others did not. This study examines the differences in the percent uninsured, healthcare utilization by service type, and clinical quality of care measures at HCH (Healthcare for the Homeless) projects between expansion and non-expansion states. An exploratory state-level retrospective analysis of annual Uniform Data System data limited to HCHs from 2012 to 2019 from 50 states plus Washington DC is presented. Using descriptive statistics and linear mixed models, we found that the percentage of uninsured HCH patients decreased across all states, but the decrease was greater in states that expanded Medicaid compared to states that did not (- 8.23, p < .0.0001). This implies HCH projects can rely less on grants and more on insurance reimbursement. When examining specific service categories, medical services in expansion states increased at a statistically significant rate post expansion as compared to non-expansion states (2.52, p = 0.0085). The percentage of substance use visits were lower in expansion states compared to non-expansion states (- 0.79, p = 0.0267). Finally, there were three preventive clinical quality of care measures at HCH projects that showed significant improvement in expansion states post expansion: colorectal cancer screening, blood pressure control, and diabetes control. Maintaining Medicaid expansion is advantageous given its association with reductions in uninsured, increased medical services utilization, and improvement in some clinical quality of care measures for homeless populations receiving services at HCH projects in expansion states.

Distinct subgroups of emergency department frequent users: A latent class analysis.

BACKGROUND: Emergency department (ED) frequent users have high resource utilization and associated costs. Many interventions have been designed to reduce utilization, but few have proved effective. This may be because this group is more heterogeneous than initially assumed, limiting the effectiveness of targeted interventions. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe distinct subgroups of ED frequent users and to estimate costs to provide hospital-based care to each group. METHODS: Latent class analysis was used to identify homogeneous subgroups of ED frequent users. ED frequent users (n = 5731) from a single urban tertiary hospital-based ED and level 1 trauma center in 2014 were included. Descriptive statistics (counts and percentages) are described to characterize subgroups. A cost analysis was performed to examine differences in direct medical costs between subgroups from the healthcare provider perspective. RESULTS: Four subgroups were identified and characterized: Short-term ED Frequent Users, Heart-related ED Frequent Users, Long-term ED Frequent Users, and Minor Care ED Frequent Users. The Heart-related group had the largest per person costs and the Long-term group had the largest total group costs. CONCLUSION: Distinct subgroups of ED frequent users were identified and described using a statistically objective method. This taxonomy of ED frequent users allows healthcare organizations to tailor interventions to specific subgroups of ED frequent users who can be targeted with tailored interventions. Cost data suggest intervention for long-term ED frequent users offers the greatest cost-avoidance benefit from a hospital perspective.

Readmission rates in not-for-profit vs. proprietary hospitals before and after the hospital readmission reduction program implementation.

BACKGROUND: The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act established the Hospital Readmission Reduction Program (HRRP) to penalize hospitals with excessive 30-day hospital readmissions of Medicare enrollees for specific conditions. This policy was aimed at increasing the quality of care delivered to patients and decreasing the amount of money paid for potentially preventable hospital readmissions. While it has been established that the number of 30-day hospital readmissions decreased after program implementation, it is unknown whether this effect occurred equally between not-for-profit and proprietary hospitals. The aim of this study was to determine whether or not the HRRP decreased readmission rates equally between not-for-profit and proprietary hospitals between 2010 and 2012. METHODS: Data on readmissions came from the Dartmouth Atlas and hospital ownership data came from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Data were joined using the Medicare provider number. Using a difference-in-differences approach, bivariate and regression analyses were conducted to compare readmission rates between not-for-profit and proprietary hospitals between 2010 and 2012 and were adjusted for hospital characteristics. RESULTS: In 2010, prior to program implementation, unadjusted readmission rates for proprietary and not-for-profit hospitals were 16.16% and 15.78%, respectively. In 2012, following program implementation, 30-day readmission rates dropped to 15.76% and 15.29% for proprietary and not-for-profit hospitals. The data suggest that the implementation of the Hospital Readmission Reduction Program had similar effects on not-for-profit and proprietary hospitals with respect to readmission rates, even after adjusting for confounders. CONCLUSIONS: Although not-for-profit hospitals had lower 30-day readmission rates than proprietary hospitals in both 2010 and 2012, they both decreased after the implementation of the HRRP and the decreases were not statistically significantly different. Thus, this study suggests that the Hospital Readmission Reduction Program was equally effective in reducing readmission rates, despite ownership status.

Delayed intracranial hemorrhage in elderly anticoagulated patients sustaining a minor fall.

BACKGROUND: Falls are a common cause of hospitalization, morbidity, and mortality among the elderly in the United States. Evidence-based imaging recommendations for evaluation of delayed intracranial hemorrhage (DICH) are not generally agreed upon. The purpose of this project was to evaluate the incidence of DICH detected by head computer tomography (CT) among an elderly population on pre-injury anticoagulant or antiplatelet (ACAP) therapy. METHODS: Data from a Level 1 Trauma Center trauma registry was used to assess the incidence of DICH in an elderly population of patients (≥65 years) who sustained a minor fall while on pre-injury ACAP medications. Counts and percentages are reported. RESULTS: Data on 1076 elderly trauma patients were downloaded, of which 838 sustained a minor fall and 513 were found to be using a pre-injury ACAP medication. One patient (0.46%) with a DICH was identified out of 218 patients who received a routine repeat head CT. Aspirin and warfarin were the most common pre-injury ACAP medications and 19.27% (42/218) of patients were found to be using multiple ACAP medications. CONCLUSIONS: Universal screening protocols promote immediate-term patient safety, but do so at a great expense with respect to health expenditures and increased radiation exposure. This analysis highlights the need for an effective risk assessment tool for DICH that would reduce the burden of unnecessary screenings while still identifying life-threatening intracranial hemorrhages in affected patients.

Perceptions of Harm and Reasons for Misuse of Prescription Opioid Drugs and Reasons for Not Seeking Treatment for Physical or Emotional Pain Among a Sample of College Students.

BACKGROUND: Since the early 1990s, the United States has seen a significant increase in the prevalence of prescription opioid misuse. Despite benefits prescription opioids provide, misuse can be fatal. OBJECTIVES: The current study was designed to investigate the prevalence of prescription opioid misuse, perceived harm of misuse, and reasons for misuse for physical or emotional pain instead of seeking professional medical or mental health treatment. METHODS: Survey data were collected in the fall of 2013 via an online survey to a random sample of 668 students from a public Midwestern university. RESULTS: Lifetime prevalence of prescription opioid misuse was 9.5%. Misusers of prescription opioid drugs generally reported lower ratings of perceived harm as compared to individuals not reporting misuse of prescription opioid drugs. Primary reasons for misuse of prescription opioid drugs was to relieve pain (33.9%), "to feel good/get high" (23.2%) and experimentation (21.4%). Lifetime misuse of a prescription opioid drug for physical or emotional pain was reported by 8.1% and 2.2% of respondents, respectively. Primary reasons for misuse for physical pain included because pain was temporary, immediate relief was needed, and no health insurance/financial resources. Primary reasons for misuse for emotional pain included not wanting others to find out, embarrassment and fear. Conclusions/Importance: Reasons for misuse of prescription opioid drugs vary by type of prescription opioid drug. Reasons for not seeking treatment that ultimately lead to misuse, vary by type of pain being treated and may be important considerations in the effort to stem the misuse of prescription opioid drugs among college students.

Emergency department use and barriers to wellness: a survey of emergency department frequent users.

BACKGROUND: There is no common understanding of how needs of emergency department (ED) frequent users differ from other patients. This study sought to examine how to best serve this population. Examinations of why ED frequent users present to the ED, what barriers to care exist, and what service offerings may help these patients achieve an optimal level of health were conducted. METHODS: We performed a prospective study of frequent ED users in an adult only, level 1 trauma center with approximately 90,000 visits per year. Frequent ED users were defined as those who make four or more ED visits in a 12 month period. Participants were administered a piloted structured interview by a trained researcher querying demographics, ED usage, perceived barriers to care, and potential aids to maintaining health. RESULTS: Of 1,523 screened patients, 297 were identified as frequent ED users. One hundred frequent ED users were enrolled. The mean age was 48 years (95% CI 45-51). The majority of subjects were female (64%, 64/100, 95% CI 55-73%), white (61%, 60/98, 95% CI 52-71%) and insured by Medicaid (55%, 47/86, 95% CI 44-65%) or Medicare (23%, 20/86, 95% CI 14-32%). Subjects had a median of 6 ED visits, and 2 inpatient admissions in the past 12 months at this hospital. Most frequent ED users (61%, 59/96, 95% CI 52-71%) stated the primary reason for their visit was that they felt that their health problem could only be treated in an ED. Transportation presented as a major barrier to few patients (7%, 7/95, 95% CI 3-14%). Subjects stated that "after-hours options, besides the ED for minor health issues" (63%, 60/95, 95% CI 53-73%) and having "a nurse to work with you one-on-one to help manage health care needs" (53%, 50/95, 95% CI 43-63%) would be most helpful in achieving optimal health. CONCLUSION: This study characterized ED frequent users and identified several opportunities to better serve this population. By understanding barriers to care from the patient perspective, health systems can potentially address unmet needs that prevent wellness in this population.

Preparedness of senior centers for active shooter incidents.

OBJECTIVE: The main objective was to evaluate the preparedness of senior centers (SCs) for active shooter (AS) events and test the hypothesis that most SCs were not organized to properly handle AS incidents. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study based on questionnaire with quantitative measures. SETTING: A questionnaire-based multistate survey of SC Directors (SCDs) of public and private SCs. PARTICIPANTS: SCs were included upon receipt of answers from SCDs to questionnaire-based survey, resulting in 139 SCs from Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Maryland, Indiana, Illinois, New York, and West Virginia. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: SCs, SCDs, and SCs' staff preparedness and vulnerability to an AS event. RESULTS: Over half (56 percent) of SCDs replied that their center was not prepared for an AS event. A significant (p < 0.01) association was found between the SCD's perception of being prepared and the availability of a formal AS preventive policy. The lack of panic buttons and surveillance cameras was significantly (p < 0.01) associated with the feeling of inability by SCDs to respond effectively to an AS event. Those SCDs who were confident about their AS preparedness felt significantly (p < 0.01) better prepared to respond to an AS incident. Personal interviews with content experts agreed that all SCDs should take steps to develop an official AS preparedness policy, but its implementation should be the direct responsibility of local policymakers and legislators. CONCLUSIONS: Most SDCs and SCs are unprepared for AS incidents. SCDs should review or develop specific recommendations and implement plans for a better preparedness of SCs and SCDs for AS events. Considering the inherent high vulnerability of older adults, there is an urgent need to have such AS policy in place.

Medicaid Expansion and Emergency Medical Service Transports.

The primary objective of this investigation was to determine if there was a change in emergency medical service (EMS) utilization following implementation of Medicaid expansion under the Affordable Care Act. The National Emergency Medical Service Information System (NEMSIS) data from 2010-2016 were evaluated in an interrupted time series analysis. Data were stratified by pediatric and adult EMS activations. No significant changes in level or trend were observed in adult EMS activations. A significant level change was observed in the pediatric EMS activations; however, the trend change reduced the impact of the level change over the study period. These results suggest that Medicaid expansion was not associated with a significant change in adult EMS use. Further investigation into pediatric EMS activations following Medicaid expansion is indicated, as these results suggest there may have been a temporary effect.

Timeliness of Care for Injured Patients Initially Seen at Freestanding Emergency Departments: A Pilot Quality Improvement Project.

BACKGROUND: The impact of freestanding emergency departments (FSEDs) on timeliness of care for trauma patients is not well understood. This quality improvement project had 2 objectives: (1) to determine whether significant delays in definitive care existed among trauma patients initially seen at FSEDs compared with those initially seen at other outlying sites prior to transfer to a level I trauma center; and (2) to determine the feasibility of identifying differences in time-to-definitive care and emergency department length of stay (ED LOS) based on initial treatment location. METHODS: Trauma registry data from January 1, 2017, through December 31, 2017, from a verified level I trauma center were analyzed by location of initial presentation. Appropriate statistical tests are used to make comparisons across transport groups. RESULTS: Patients initially seen at non-FSEDs experienced ED LOS that were, on average, 24.5 minutes greater than patients seen initially at FSEDs, although the difference was not statistically significant (P = .3112). Several challenges were identified in the feasibility analysis that will inform the design for a larger study including large quantities of missing time stamp data and potential selection bias. Prospective solutions were identified. CONCLUSION: This project found that there were not significant differences in ED LOS for injured patients presenting initially to FSEDs or other non-FSED facilities, suggesting that timeliness of care was similar across location types.

Using Lean Six Sigma to Improve Delayed Intracranial Hemorrhage Screening in a Geriatric Trauma Population.

PURPOSE: Geriatric trauma patients taking preinjury anticoagulant or antiplatelet (ACAP) medications are at greater risk for delayed intracranial hemorrhage (DICH), a rare but potentially life-threatening condition. Routine repeat head computed tomography (RRHCT) scans can identify DICH. Our objective was to decrease the rate of missed RRHCT in a level 1 Midwest trauma center geriatric minor trauma population on preinjury ACAP medications. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the quality improvement project was to identify the root cause of the missed RRHCTs and to implement a comprehensive solution to reduce rates of missed RRHCTs. METHODS: Medical records from before and after the intervention were evaluated. Frequencies and percentages were calculated. In addition, χ and logistic regression were utilized. The Lean Six Sigma (LSS) DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control) process was used to drive process improvement. RESULTS: At baseline, 15% (41 of 267) of RRHCTs were missed. After solution implementation, missed RRHCTs dropped to 4% (2 of 50). Of the 2 that were missed, zero were clinically inappropriate misses, making the postimplementation rate effectively 0%. CONCLUSION: The LSS DMAIC process helped health care professional to facilitate improved adherence to the department's practice guideline with respect to RRHCT. Adherence with this guideline can help providers identify patients with DICH, a potentially life-threatening condition.

A Novel Simulation Technician Laboratory Design: Results of a Survey-Based Study.

UNLABELLED: OBJECTIVE : The purpose of this study was to elicit feedback from simulation technicians prior to developing the first simulation technician-specific simulation laboratory in Akron, OH. BACKGROUND: Simulation technicians serve a vital role in simulation centers within hospitals/health centers around the world. The first simulation technician degree program in the US has been approved in Akron, OH. To satisfy the requirements of this program and to meet the needs of this special audience of learners, a customized simulation lab is essential. METHOD: A web-based survey was circulated to simulation technicians prior to completion of the lab for the new program. The survey consisted of questions aimed at identifying structural and functional design elements of a novel simulation center for the training of simulation technicians. Quantitative methods were utilized to analyze data. RESULTS: Over 90% of technicians (n=65) think that a lab designed explicitly for the training of technicians is novel and beneficial. Approximately 75% of respondents think that the space provided appropriate audiovisual (AV) infrastructure and space to evaluate the ability of technicians to be independent. The respondents think that the lab needed more storage space, visualization space for a large number of students, and more space in the technical/repair area. CONCLUSIONS : A space designed for the training of simulation technicians was considered to be beneficial. This laboratory requires distinct space for technical repair, adequate bench space for the maintenance and repair of simulators, an appropriate AV infrastructure, and space to evaluate the ability of technicians to be independent.