Balance Control in Individuals with Hearing Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Comprehensive insights into balance control of individuals with hearing impairment are compared with individuals with hearing. Primary sources were obtained from 7 databases including PubMed, LILACS, SCOPUS, CINAHL, PEDro, CENTRAL, and Web of Science. The search period extended from inception until January 5, 2022. The systematic review included 24 studies and 27 trials, with a total of 2,148 participants. The meta-analysis showed a significant difference in the average balance control between individuals with hearing impairment and individuals with hearing, with individuals with hearing having a favorable advantage (p = 0.001). Additionally, average balance control was found to be in favor of individuals with hearing (p = 0.001) when comparing individuals with hearing impairment who participated in sports. Finally, individuals with hearing impairment who participated in sports demonstrated a significantly higher average difference in balance control (p = 0.001) when compared to sedentary people with hearing impairment. Our meta-analysis results indicate a balance defect in individuals with hearing impairment compared to individuals with hearing. In addition, with increasing age, the balance in individuals with hearing impairment improved. Additionally, the dependence of individuals with hearing impairment on the visual and proprioception systems to maintain balance increased. Finally, there was more dependence on the proprioception than the visual system, while individuals with hearing had stronger average balance control than individuals with hearing impairment who participated in sports, when compared to sedentary people with hearing impairment.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of physical activity interventions to increase elementary children's motor competence: a comprehensive school physical activity program perspective.

BACKGROUND: Regular participation in physical activity (PA) benefits children's health and well-being and protects against the development of unhealthy body weight. A key factor in children's PA participation is their motor competence (MC). The comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) framework offers a way to classify existing PA interventions that have included children's MC development and understand the potential avenues for supporting children's MC. However, there have been no systematic reviews or meta-analyses of PA interventions and their effects on the MC of elementary school children (aged 5-12 years) from a CSPAP perspective. METHODS: This study was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement. We searched seven electronic databases (PubMed/Medline, Embase, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, Web of Science, and PsycINFO) for articles on 29 November 2021. The CSPAP framework was used to categorize the different intervention approaches. This review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020179866). RESULTS: Twenty-seven studies were included in the review, and twenty-six studies were included in the meta-analysis. A wide range of PA intervention approaches (e.g., single component or multicomponent) within the context of the CSPAP framework appear to be promising pathways in enhancing children's MC. The results of the aggregate meta-analysis presented that effect sizes for the development of MC from pre-and post- intervention ranged from moderate to large (Hedges' g = 0.41-0.79). The analysis revealed that the predicted moderators, including study length, delivery agent, and study design, did not result in statistically significant moderate variations in MC outcomes. There was, however, considerable heterogeneity in study design, instruments, and study context, and studies were implemented in over 11 countries across diverse settings. CONCLUSIONS: This study uniquely contributes to the literature through its primary focus on the effectiveness of PA interventions on elementary children's MC. This review emphasizes the importance of customizing CSPAP to fit the specific characteristics of each school setting, including its environmental, demographic, and resource attributes. The effectiveness of CSPAP, particularly its physical education (PE) component, is significantly enhanced when these programs are adapted to address the unique needs of each school. This adaptation can be effectively achieved through targeted professional teacher training, ensuring that PE programs are not only contextually relevant but also optimized for maximum impact in diverse educational environments. Researchers and practitioners should pursue how to effectively translate the evidence into practice to better conceptualize CSPAPs designed for children's MC development.

The Effects of an Integrative, Universally Designed Motor Skill Intervention for Young Children With and Without Disabilities.

Many interventions feature a singular component approach to targeting children's motor competency and proficiency. Yet, little is known about the use of integrative interventions to meet the complex developmental needs of children aged 3-6 years. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an integrative universally designed intervention on children with and without disabilities' motor competency and proficiency. We selected children (N = 111; disability = 24; no disability = 87) to participate in either a school-based integrative motor intervention (n = 53) or a control condition (n = 58). Children in the integrative motor intervention both with and without disabilities showed significant improvement in motor competency and proficiency (p < .001) as compared with peers with and without disabilities in a control condition. Early childhood center directors (e.g., preschool and kindergarten) should consider implementing integrative universally designed interventions targeting multiple aspects of motor development to remediate delays in children with and without disabilities.

A Pilot Study of a Parent-Mediated, Web-Based Motor Skill Intervention for Children With Down Syndrome: Project SKIP.

To inform the development of scalable and sustainable fundamental motor skill interventions for children with Down syndrome, this study examined the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of Project Skill Intervention Implemented by Parents (Project SKIP), a web-based, parent-mediated intervention intended to improve ball skills among children with Down syndrome. Twenty-four families enrolled in the study (including 13 boys and 11 girls; Mage = 4.92). Fourteen children were assigned to an experimental group and participated in the 6-week intervention, and 10 children served as the inactive comparison group. The Test of Gross Motor Development-3 was administered preintervention and postintervention. In addition, parents of children in the experimental group completed a postintervention survey to assess their perceptions of Project SKIP. Following the intervention, there was a significant improvement in ball skills (p = .023, d = 0.86) for children in the experimental group, whereas the comparison group did not show significant improvement. Moreover, parents perceived Project SKIP to be feasible and effective; all parents reported being satisfied with their overall experience in the program, and 11 parents indicated that their child's fundamental motor skills were positively influenced by the intervention. Engagement was high, with the majority of parents (n = 8, 57%) interacting with Project SKIP content three to four times a week.

A Comparison of the Fundamental Motor Skills of Preschool-Aged Children With and Without Visual Impairments.

Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are an underlying mechanism driving physical activity behavior and promoting positive developmental trajectories for health. However, little is known about FMS of preschool-aged children with visual impairments (VI). The purpose of this study was to examine the FMS of preschool-aged children (N = 25) with (n = 10) and without (n = 15) VI as measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3. Children without VI performed significantly higher than their peers for locomotor (M = +11.87, p = .014, η2 = .31) and ball skills (M = +13.69, p < .001, η2 = .56). Regardless of the presence of a VI, many participants struggled with developing FMS, with the greatest disparity resting within ball skills. These findings help to clarify the FMS levels of preschool-aged children with VI. Thus, there is a need for both further inquiry and intervention for all children.

Longitudinal Locomotor Competence and Body Mass Index Across Self-Reported Gender and Vision Level for Youth With Visual Impairments: A 3-Year Investigation.

Youth with visual impairments are more likely to be overweight than peers without visual impairments and often struggle with their locomotor skills. Locomotor development can combat unhealthy body weight statuses by supporting physical activity behaviors. There are no longitudinal investigations concerning the locomotor skill and body mass index (BMI) developmental trajectories of youth with visual impairments. The purpose of this study was to examine the 3-year developmental trajectory of the locomotor skills and BMI of youth with visual impairments including differential effects of self-reported gender and degree of vision. Participants (N = 34, Mage = 11.75 years, 47% female) showed severely delayed and arrested locomotor development with increases in BMI across 3 years regardless of self-reported gender or degree of vision. Participants failed to breech a proficiency barrier of motor competence to combat against increases in BMI across time. Additional longitudinal inquiries are needed.

The Effects of Ecologically Valid Intervention Strategies on the Locomotor Skills of Children With Visual Impairments.

Children with visual impairments often exhibit difficulties with locomotor skills (e.g., the ability to move one's body from one place to another), warranting the need for ecologically valid interventions with conditions that attempt to match the real world in a variety of settings. Parents and physical education teachers are the ones choosing to provide movement opportunities for children with visual impairments and must be included in any ecologically valid intervention strategy. This was a descriptive-analytic study. To support the greatest diversity in settings, the authors recruited 94 participants (blind = 44 and low vision = 50; Mage = 13.01 years, SD = 3.26) from schools for the deaf and blind in the United States (teacher led, n = 17) or Latvia (teacher led, n = 57), through an online LISTSERV throughout the United States (parent led, n = 10), and a control subgroup (n = 10). At the pretest, no participant's motor development met age expectations. Children with visual impairments from multiple locations and cultures significantly improved compared with controls who did not. Results were most favorable when the physical educator was the interventionist. However, further research is needed to replicate these findings.

Children's metabolic expenditure during object projection skill performance: New insight for activity intensity relativity.

Objective: To examine children's energy expenditure (EE) during object projection skill performance at three intensity intervals. Methods: Children's (42, Mage = 8.1) average metabolic equivalents of task (METs) were calculated using a COSMED K4b2 while they repeatedly performed blocks of kicking, throwing (overhand), and striking (two-handed) during 6, 12, and 30-s interval conditions. A repeated-measures analysis of covariance examined differences in METs while controlling for skill level. Results: Data indicated a main effect for interval condition (df = 2, 123, F = 94.36, p <.001, η2 = .605). Post hoc t-tests demonstrated decreasing performance interval times yielded progressively higher METs (p <.001) across the three conditions (30s = 4.5±0.8 METs, 12s = 6.3±1.3, 6s = 8.3±1.6). There also was a main effect for sex (df = 1,120, F = 52.28, p <.001 η2 = .305). Boys demonstrated higher METs at each performance interval (p <.001). Conclusion: Skill practice with a maximum of one trial every 30s resulted in the equivalent of at least moderate physical activity (>4.0 METs) and intervals of 6s demonstrated vigorous physical activity (>7.0 METs). Practicing/performing object projection skills, even at intervals that allow for adequate instruction and feedback (i.e., 1 trial/30s), promotes MVPA in children.

Predictors of Physical Activity for Preschool Children With and Without Disabilities From Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Settings.

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in motor competence, perceived motor competence (PMC), body mass index, and physical activity (PA) and to assess factors that predict PA behaviors of preschool children with and without disabilities. A total of 59 children with (n = 28) and without (n = 31) disabilities participated in the study. Results revealed that children with disabilities had significantly greater amounts of PA than peers without disabilities. There were no significant differences for motor competence, PMC, and body mass index for children with or without a disability. Although age and body mass index were controlled, both disability and PMC significantly predicted PA. Future intervention studies should consider maintaining high levels of PMC, as it is a significant predictor of PA.

New insight for activity intensity relativity, metabolic expenditure during object projection skill performance.

This study examined the metabolic cost (METs) of performing object projection skills at three practice trial intervals (6, 12, and 30 seconds). Forty adults (female n = 20) aged 18-30 (M = 23.7 ± 2.9 years) completed three, nine-minute sessions of skill trials performed at 6, 12, and 30 second intervals. Participants performed kicking, throwing and striking trials in a blocked schedule with maximal effort. Average METs during each session were measured using a COSMED K4b2. A three (interval condition) X two (sex) ANOVA was conducted to examine differences in METs across interval conditions and by sex. Results indicated a main effect for interval condition (F(5,114) = 187.02, p < .001, η2 = 0.76) with decreased interval times yielding significantly higher METs [30 sec = 3.45, 12 sec = 5.68, 6 sec = 8.21]. A main effect for sex (F(5, 114) = 35.39, p < .001, η2 = 0.24) also was found with men demonstrating higher METs across all intervals. At a rate of only two trials/min, participants elicited moderate physical activity, with 12 and 6-second intervals exhibiting vigorous PA. Demonstrating MVPA during the performance of object projection skill performance has potential implications for PA interventions.

Head, Toes, Knees, SKIP! Improving Preschool Children's Executive Function Through a Motor Competence Intervention.

Executive function skills play a critical role in school readiness for young children and can be improved through targeted intervention. However, children in preschool often experience deficits in multiple developmental domains. Thus, there is a need for integrated interventions that target multiple domains in concert. This study tested whether a proven gross motor skill intervention, Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers (SKIP), also improves preschoolers' executive function. Participants were randomly assigned to either intervention (n = 50) or control (n = 57) conditions. Prior to intervention, executive function and gross motor skills were tested. Intervention occurred for 6 weeks with 30-min sessions twice weekly (dose = 360 min). At posttest, participants in the SKIP condition showed significantly better gross motor and executive function skills than control participants. Results are the first to document the effectiveness of the SKIP intervention in also improving children's executive function.

Psychometric Properties of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 for Children With Visual Impairments.

Results of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) consistently show acceptable validity and reliability for children/adolescents who are sighted and those who have visual impairments. Results of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3) are often valid and reliable for children who are sighted, but its psychometric properties are unknown for children with visual impairments. Participants (N = 66; Mage = 12.93, SD = 2.40) with visual impairments completed the TGMD-2 and TGMD-3. The TGMD-3 results from this sample revealed high internal consistency (ω = .89-.95), strong interrater reliability (ICC = .91-.92), convergence with the TGMD-2 (r = .96), and good model fit, χ2(63) = 80.10, p = .072, χ2/df ratio = 1.27, RMSEA = .06, CFI = .97. Researchers and practitioners can use the TGMD-3 to assess the motor skill performance for children/adolescents with visual impairments and most likely produce results that are valid and reliable.

Accuracy of the Fitbit Zip for Measuring Steps for Adolescents With Visual Impairments.

Our purpose in this study was to document the criterion validity of the Fitbit Zip for measuring steps taken by youth with visual impairments (VI). A secondary purpose was to determine whether walking pace, mounting position, or relative position to the user's mobility device impacted the criterion validity of the device. Fourteen adolescent-aged individuals (Mage = 15.4; 13 male and 1 female) with VI participated in this study. Participants wore four Fitbit Zips at different mounting positions and completed two, 2-min walking trials while the lead investigator hand tallied steps. Measurement validity was analyzed using absolute percent error (APE), intraclass correlation coefficients estimated level of conformity, and paired samples t tests and Cohen's d effect sizes assessed APE relative to mounting positions. Results supported the use of the Fitbit Zip during regular-paced walking; however, caution must be used during activities exceeding regular walking speeds, as devices consistently underestimated steps.

The development and validation of a golf swing and putt skill assessment for children.

The aim was to describe development of a process-oriented instrument designed to assess the golf swing and putt stroke, and to assess the instrument's discriminative validity in terms of age and reliability (intra-rater and re-test). A Delphi consultation (with golf industry professionals and researchers in movement skill assessment) was used to develop an assessment for each skill based on existing skill assessment protocols. Each skill had six components to be marked as present/absent. Individual scores were based on the number of performance components successfully demonstrated over two trials for each skill (potential score range 0 to 24). Children (n = 43) aged 6-10 years (M = 7.8 years, SD = 1.3) were assessed in both skills live in the field by one rater at Time 1(T1). A subset of children (n = 28) had consent for assessments to be videoed. Six weeks later 19 children were reassessed, five days apart (T2, T3). An ANOVA assessed discriminative validity i.e. whether skill competence at T1 differed by age (6 years, 7/8 years and 9/10 years). Intraclass correlations (ICC) assessed intra-rater reliability between the live and video assessment at T1 and test-retest reliability (between T2 and T3). Paired t-tests assessed any systematic differences between live and video assessments (T1) and between T2 and T3. Older children were more skilled (F (2, 40) = 11.18, p < 0.001). The live assessment reflected the video assessment (ICC = 0.79, 95% CI 0.59, 0.90) and scores did not differ between live and video assessments. Test retest reliability was acceptable (ICC = 0.60, 95% CI 0.23, 0.82), although the mean score was slightly higher at retest. This instrument could be used reliably by golf coaches and physical education teachers as part of systematic early player assessment and feedback. Key pointsGolf is becoming an increasingly popular sport among young children, however there is no standard protocol available to assess and identify skill deficits, mastery level, and talent identification in beginner young golf players.Process rather than product oriented outcomes better identify areas of skill deficit in young children.The proposed swing and putt instrument can reliably identify skill deficits in children of elementary school age who are new to golf and can be used by a range of stakeholders including golf coaches, generalist sport coaches and physical education teachers.

Balance Recovery Strategy in Children With and Without Hearing or Visual Impairments.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the balance recovery strategy in children with hearing (HI) and visual impairments (VI) compared with those without these disorders. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study featured a cross-sectional design with subjects (N = 45) placed within one of three equally stratified purposive groups (HI, VI, and comparison) within the age range of 9-13 years (mean = 11.43, SD = 1.5). Balance recovery strategy was measured in static and after-perturbation conditions by a four-camera Vicon system used to record three-dimensional lower body kinematic data. A repeated-measures analysis of variance (3 × 2, Group × Condition) was utilized to analyze data. Significance was set at p ≤ .05. RESULTS: In the static condition, the results of the study showed that there was no significant difference between the groups in the ankle joint sway (p > .05). In hip joint sway, VI children had greater sway compared with comparison (p = .001) and HI children (p = .02). Also, HI children had greater sways than comparison (p = .02). In the after-perturbation condition, the results showed that VI children had greater sway in the hip and ankle joints than HI children (p = .001) and comparison (p = .001) to restore and maintain balance. CONCLUSION: It seems that comparison as well as higher proportion VI children use a hip strategy to maintain and restore balance. Also, it seems that HI children use a different strategy (ankle strategy) to maintain and restore balance compared with comparison and VI children.

Effects of exercise training programs on motor skills of individuals with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: Motor skills are involved in many physical activities and are prerequisites for the performance of sport skills. The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the effects of exercise training programs (ETP) on the motor skills of individuals with intellectual disabilities (IwID). METHODS: Primary sources were obtained from four databases including PubMed, SCOPUS, CENTRAL, and Web of Science. The search period covered years from inception to October 26th, 2023. Inclusion criteria were as follows: Population: IwID; Intervention: ETP; Comparator: motor skills vs. nontraining control; Outcomes: motor skills outcomes. Standardized mean differences, weighted mean differences, and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using both random and fixed-effect models for outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 14 studies involving 586 participants were included in the systematic review. The results of the present meta-analysis showed that ETP improved composite motor skills (1.28 95% CI: [0.86, 1.70], p = 0.001), gross motor skills (0.91, 95% CI: [0.62,1.19], p = 0.001), fine motor skills (0.74, 95% CI: [0.21,1.27], p = 0.01) and fine-gross motor skills (0.64, 95% CI: [0.29, 1.00], p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: The results meta-analysis demonstrated that ETP improves the motor skills of IwID. Therefore, it is recommended to apply ETP to improve the motor skills of the IwID.

Exercise training programs is a rehabilitation program to enhance motor skills in individuals with intellectual disabilities.It is recommended for rehabilitation professionals to apply exercise training programs to improve the motor skills of the individuals with intellectual disabilities.The positive outcomes underscore the importance of incorporating tailored exercise training programs interventions into the improves the motor skills for individuals with intellectual disabilities.

The impacts of exercise training programs on balance in children with hearing loss: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE: According to the prevalence of balance disorders among children with hearing loss (HL), researchers used exercise programs to improve balance in children with HL. So, the present systematic review and meta-analysis briefly summarize findings regarding the impacts of exercise training programs on balance in children with HL. METHODS: Science Direct, MEDLINE/PubMed, SCOPUS, LILACS, CINAHL, CENTRAL, Web of Science, PEDro, and Google Scholar were searched from inception until November 11th, 2023. Two independent researchers analyzed and extracted the data from potential papers whose eligibility was confirmed. Then, the PEDro scale was used to obtain quality assessment scores. The total PEDro score is 11 and incorporates the presentation of statistical analysis and evaluation criteria of internal validity. Studies that scored 7-11 were considered methodologically "high", 5 to 6 were "fair", and ≤4 were considered "poor". RESULTS: 10 studies involving a total of 304 participations were included in the systematic review. Our results demonstrate that exercise training programs positively impact static balance (p = 0.001) with level 1a evidence, the postural sway (p = 0.001) with level 1a evidence, and dynamic balance (p = 0.001) with level 1a evidence in children with HL. CONCLUSION: The findings of this systematic review and meta-analysis related to studies with excellent methodological quality revealed that the intended training programs significantly impact postural sway along with static and dynamic balance in children with HL. It is recommended that future exercise training programs be paired with rehabilitation programs for children with HL.

Exploring Facilitators and Barriers to Physical Activity for Families of Rural Preschoolers Participating in a Motor Skill Program.

While schools provide one opportunity to encourage physical activity, caregivers play an exceedingly important role in creating an environment conducive to preschool children's physical activity. Yet, little is known regarding the perceptions of caregivers, important choice agents for young children's physical activity behavior after participating in a motor skill program. The purpose of this study was to examine caregivers' perceptions of facilitators and barriers to children's physical activity at home among rural, low-income families who participated in a school-based early childhood physical activity program, SKIPping with PALS, designed to increase physical activity and improve motor development. Eleven caregivers consented to participate in a semi-structured interview regarding their perceptions of physical activity and their experience after six months of participation in the program. An inductive, naturalistic evaluation approach was utilized for qualitative data analysis, following the six recursive phases of thematic analysis. A review of the interview transcripts revealed that all caregivers valued physical activity and encouraged their children to be active. Four major facilitators, four major barriers, and an overarching theme of parental support for childhood physical activity were identified. These factors are largely circumstantial and attitudinal and, thus, are difficult to modify but are important to be cognizant of when designing interventions.

"You Throw Like a Girl!": Young Children's Gender Stereotypes About Object Control Skills.

Purpose: Understanding if children hold stereotypes about motor skills, may partially explain differences in object control performance between young boys and girls. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether young boys and girls held stereotypes related to object control skills. Methods: Children (N = 84) ages three years four months to five years seven months (Mage = 4.6 years, SD = .58) completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition and a modified version of the Children's Occupations, Activities and Traits Measure. Spearman Rho correlations examined associations between children's stereotypes and actual object control skills performance. We then examined differences between boys' and girls' gender stereotypes (three for each category) and object control skills via independent samples t-tests. Results: Results showed significant associations between gender stereotypes toward object control skills and actual object control skills for girls (ρ = -.31--.53, p < .05) but not for boys (ρ = .10-.14, p > .05). Concurrently, girls showed significantly lower object control skills than boys (t[82] = 2.01; p = .042, d = .44) as well as significantly higher gender stereotypes across all three categories (p < .05, d = .54-1.77). Conclusion: These data indicated that girls, not boys, held gender stereotypes about object control skills in concert with lower object control skill performances. Future research should evaluate the impacts of an integrated gross motor intervention which seeks to change gender stereotypes and concurrently improve object control skill performance.

Balance Control in Individuals With Visual Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with visual impairment have balance deficits; therefore, this systematic review aimed to provide comprehensive insights into the balance control of individuals with visual impairments when compared with individuals with full vision. METHODS: Primary sources were obtained from eight databases including PubMed, LILACS, Science Direct, SCOPUS, CINAHL, PEDro, CENTRAL, and Web of Science. The search period covered years from inception to January 10, 2022. RESULTS: A total of 20 studies with 29 trials with 1,280 participants were included in the systematic review. The results showed that individuals with sight had better static and dynamic balance than individuals with visual impairment (p = .001). However, individuals with visual impairment had significantly better static balance with visual perturbation and stronger static balance with visual and proprioception perturbation (p = .001). Furthermore, individuals with sight had better balance control than individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports (p = .001). Finally, individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports had better balance control than sedentary people with visual impairment (p = .001). CONCLUSION: Individuals with visual impairment have defects in both dynamic and static balance when compared to individuals with sight. In addition, balance improved with increasing age in individuals with visual impairment while balance control was dependent on the proprioception and vestibular systems. Also, individuals with sight had better balance than individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports and individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports compared with sedentary people with visual impairment.