Traumatic stress symptoms predict restraint incidents in children and adolescents in psychiatric residential treatment.

The early identification of youth at risk for restraint incidents is an important next step to reducing the likelihood of such incidents. Yet, the extant research has not comprehensively investigated the idiographic factors that contribute to the restraint of youth in psychiatric residential treatment facilities (PRTFs). The current study investigated client-level predictors of restraint incidents, with specific emphasis on youth client trauma history and traumatic stress symptoms as assessed at admission. Participants were children and adolescents (N = 150; 55.3% female, 66.7% White, 33.3% Black or biracial) aged 6-17 (M = 11.8 years) admitted to a PRTF in the northeastern United States. A negative binomial regression with maximum likelihood estimation was conducted to examine the relative contributions of age, gender, length of stay, number of psychiatric diagnoses, body mass index (BMI), and traumatic stress symptoms at intake to the frequency of restraint incidents. The model was significant, χ2 (6, N = 150) = 30.326, p < .001, and both length of stay, ß = .005, p < .001, IRR = 1.005, and traumatic stress symptoms at intake, ß = .072, p = .007, IRR = 1.074, were identified as significant predictors within the model. Although length of stay is an obvious predictor of restraint incidents, the current study is the first of which we are aware to identify traumatic stress symptoms at intake as a potential indicator of restraint frequency following admission. Clinical implications of these results are discussed.

A review of sleep disturbance in children and adolescents with anxiety.

The present review examines the relations between sleep disturbance and anxiety in children and adolescents. The review begins with a detailed discussion of normative developmental trends in sleep, and the relation between sleep quality and emotion dysregulation in children. The extant literature on sleep disturbance in clinically anxious children with a focus on subjective versus objective measures of sleep is then summarized in detail. Finally, a review of the reciprocal relationship between sleep and emotion regulation is provided. The available research suggests that sleep disturbance is quite prevalent in children with anxiety disorders, although the directionality of the association between sleep disturbance and anxiety in children remains unclear. Despite this limitation, a reciprocal relationship between sleep quality and anxiety appears to be well established. Research using objective measures of sleep quality (e.g. polysomnography, sleep actigraphy, sleep bruxism) is warranted to better understand this relation. Further, complicating factors such as the environment in which sleep quality is measured, the developmental stage of participants, varying severity of anxiety and the timeframe during which assessment takes place should all be considered when examining sleep disturbance in this population.

Neural Correlates of Trait Rumination During an Emotion Interference Task in Women With PTSD.

Rumination, defined as repetitive, negative, self-focused thinking, is hypothesized to be a transdiagnostic factor that is associated with depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Theory has suggested that in individuals with PTSD, rumination serves as a cognitive avoidance factor that contributes to the maintenance of symptoms by inhibiting the cognitive and emotional processing of the traumatic event, subsequently interfering with treatment engagement and outcome. Little is known about the neural correlates of rumination in women with PTSD. The current study utilized functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine neural correlates during an emotion interference task of self-reported rumination in women with PTSD. Women with PTSD (39 participants) were recruited at a university-based trauma clinic and completed a clinical evaluation that included measures of PTSD symptoms, rumination, and depressive symptoms, as well as a neuroimaging session in which the participants were administered an emotion interference task. There was a significant relationship between self-reported rumination and activity in the right orbital frontal cortex, BA 11; t(37) = 5.62, p = .004, k = 46 during the task. This finding suggested that women with PTSD, who had higher levels of rumination, may experience greater difficulty inhibiting negative emotional stimuli compared to women with lower levels of rumination.

Psychometric evaluation of the Symptom-Checklist-K-9 among U.S. working-age adults with psychiatric disabilities.

PURPOSE: The Symptom Checklist 90-Revised (SCL-90-R; Derogatis, 1992) is a widely used self-report measure of psychiatric symptoms (Prinz et al., 2013), but it is longer than many screening measures used in certain settings. Recently, a nine-item form of the SCL-90-R, the Symptom-Checklist-K-9 (SCL-K-9), has been gaining traction despite the limited research examining its psychometric properties in the United States. The purpose of this study is to conduct a psychometric evaluation of the SCL-K-9 scores in U.S. working-age adults with psychiatric disabilities. DESIGN: Six hundred and thirty participants with self-reported psychiatric disabilities completed the SCL-K-9 and other psychosocial self-report measures. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the SCL-K-9 scores' dimensionality. Coefficient omega was used to assess the scores' internal consistency. Convergent and discriminant validity were assessed by examining the strength and direction of correlation coefficients between the SCL-K-9 and other psychosocial measures. Measurement invariance across sex, age, and primary diagnostic groups was also examined. RESULTS: CFA revealed a one-factor solution with satisfactory reliability (coefficient omega = .828). Convergent validity was supported by the relatively high correlation coefficients between the SCL-K-9 with neuroticism, self-stigma, and psychiatric disability acceptance, and discriminant validity by relatively low correlation coefficients with perceived social stigma and hope. Full measurement invariance for sex and partial invariance for diagnostic groups was supported. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, this study provides preliminary reliability and validity evidence for the SCL-K-9 scores among U.S. working-age adults with psychiatric disabilities. Further investigation is warranted to support its use for research and treatment progress monitoring in recovery-oriented care. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Unidimensional versus multidimensional: A bifactor factor structure of the Self-Stigma Scale-Short (SSS-S) among U.S. adults with psychiatric disabilities.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the English version of the Self-Stigma Scale-Short (SSS-S), a nine-item self-report self-stigma measurement, among U.S. adults with psychiatric disabilities. METHOD: We obtained reliability and validity evidence from a sample of 275 adults with psychiatric disabilities. RESULTS: Exploratory factor analysis (EFA; n = 139) yielded a two-factor solution that accounts for 64.97% of the variance. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; n = 136) was conducted to compare alternative solutions, including a single-factor model, a two-correlated-factor model, a three-correlated-factor model, and a bifactorial model. The CFA results supported the bifactor S·I - 1 model as a superior latent factor structure for the SSS-S. The coefficient ω of the SSS-S was .94, indicating excellent internal reliability. Concurrent validity of the SSS-S was supported by significant positive correlations with societal stigma and psychiatric symptom severity, and negative correlations with psychiatric disability acceptance, general self-efficacy, and hope. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: The overall findings concluded that the English version of the SSS-S demonstrated reliable and valid scores and a primarily unidimensional structure of self-stigma among U.S. adults with psychiatric disabilities. Given the adverse impact of self-stigma and its relationships with recovery-related constructs shown in this study, the routine use of the SSS-S is recommended in psychiatric rehabilitation settings. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Confirmatory factor analysis of the 12-item World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 (WHODAS-2.0) within the clubhouse model of psychosocial rehabilitation for serious mental illness.

OBJECTIVE: The Clubhouse model (CM) for serious mental illness is a recovery-oriented and member-driven program that aims to facilitate functional recovery. Efficacy evaluation of the CM is limited by lack of uniform functional disability assessment. The World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 (WHODAS-2.0) is a widely accepted measure of functional disability, but its psychometric properties have yet to be examined within the CM. METHOD: This research sought to confirm the generic six-factor structure of the 12-item WHODAS-2.0 using retrospective administrative data from 339 adults with serious mental illness from an accredited Clubhouse. A second-order confirmatory factor analysis was conducted, followed by secondary known-groups analyses to examine whether the WHODAS-2.0 differentiates between subgroups with varying degrees of disability. RESULTS: The WHODAS-2.0 demonstrated good overall reliability. The generic six-factor structure produced nonsignificant loadings due to lack of independence between the "participation" and "getting along" factors. The items of these two factors were combined into a five-factor model, which displayed excellent fit, with all significant paths and adequate-to-strong loadings, and no correlation among errors. The WHODAS-2.0 significantly differentiated members by receipt of public assistance, employment status, and number of medical comorbidities, supporting construct validity. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: These results provide initial support for the use of the 12-item WHODAS-2.0 as a CM-related outcome measure and encourage future research of the full 36-item version. The intentional community approach of the CM is unique and may require adjustments to the factor structure of the WHODAS-2.0 by merging the "participation" and "getting along" domains. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Posttraumatic stress symptoms, posttraumatic growth, and personality factors: A network analysis.

BACKGROUND: After experiencing a traumatic event, two possible outcomes are experiencing positive changes, such as posttraumatic growth (PTG), and/or experiencing distress in the form of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). These constructs are not mutually exclusive; those who experience PTSS may concurrently or at a later date likewise undergo PTG. Pretrauma factors, such as personality as measured by the Big Five Inventory (BFI), can interact with both PTSS and PTG. METHODS: The present study utilized Network theory to examine the interactions between PTSS, PTG, and personality in 1310 participants. Three networks were computed (PTSS, PTSS/BFI, PTSS/PTG/BFI). RESULTS: Within the PTSS network, strong negative emotions emerged as the strongest influence on the network. Again, in the PTSS and BFI network, strong negative emotions exerted the strongest overall influence in addition to bridging the PTSS and personality domains. In the network with all variables of interest, the PTG domain of new possibilities was the strongest overall influence on the network. Specific relationships between constructs were identified. LIMITATIONS: Limitations of this study include the cross-sectional design and utilization of a sub-threshold PTSD, non-treatment seeking sample. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, nuanced relationships between variables of interest were identified, informing personalized treatment and furthers our understanding of both positive and negative responses to trauma. As the primary influence across two networks, the experience of strong negative emotions appears to be central to the subjective experience of PTSD. This may indicate a need to modify present treatments for PTSD, which conceptualize PTSD as a primarily fear-based disorder.

Predictors of treatment discontinuation during an 18-month multi-site randomized trial of Cognitive Enhancement Therapy for early course schizophrenia.

Treatment discontinuation during clinical trials in schizophrenia is a critical challenge, especially for longer-term interventions in the early course. This research explored predictors of treatment discontinuation in an outpatient early course schizophrenia sample (N = 102) during an 18-month multi-site trial of Cognitive Enhancement Therapy (n = 58) and Enriched Supportive Therapy (n = 44). Fifty-three (52%) participants discontinued, with no significant difference between the treatment groups in discontinuation rate. Univariate and multivariate binary logistic regression models explored differences in key demographic and cognitive and behavioral outcomes between participants who completed and discontinued treatment. Significant multivariate predictors of discontinuation included IQ (linear) and problem solving (curvilinear). The concave shape of the problem solving prediction demonstrated that initially as scores were increasing the probability of non-completion was increasing. However, after a score of 41 (below average problem solving), the probability of being a non-completer decreased as performance increased. Non-completers had significantly lower IQ scores compared to completers. Post-hoc analyses indicated that participants who discontinued prior to mid-treatment exhibited the greatest intellectual challenges, with comparisons moderate-to-large in strength. IQ and problem solving are likely important factors to assess at pre-treatment in early course schizophrenia trials to identify those most vulnerable to discontinuation.

Predictors of Attrition and Response in Cognitive Processing Therapy for Interpersonal Trauma Survivors with PTSD.

With the establishment of empirically validated treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), concerns remain regarding the effectiveness of such treatments in real-world clinical settings. Specifically, premature termination and treatment response limit the effectiveness of these interventions. The current study investigated factors potentially related to premature termination and treatment response in Cognitive Processing Therapy with Account (CPT-A). Participants in this study included 42 women (Mage = 30.70 SDage = 9.40) with PTSD from exposure to interpersonal trauma. Demographic characteristics, pre-treatment symptoms of PTSD and depression, and transdiagnostic factors were examined as predictors of attrition and treatment response. Hierarchical regression and logistic regression models were analyzed to test the variance explained and predictive value of these factors. The present study revealed that age was a significant factor related to dropout from CPT-A whereas baseline PTSD symptom severity was significantly related to treatment response. Results of this study suggest the importance of the interrelationships among pre-treatment predictors as well as the consideration of attrition and treatment response as distinct metrics of treatment outcome. Further, these results inform the application of CPT-A for PTSD in survivors of interpersonal trauma, as consideration of the identified predictors of dropout and non-response at intake may contribute to treatment retention and response.

Effects of Emotion Dysregulation on Post-treatment Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Depressive Symptoms Among Women Veterans With Military Sexual Trauma.

Military sexual trauma (MST), defined as sexual assault or repeated, threatening sexual harassment while in the military, is associated with increased risk of long-term mental and physical health problems, with the most common being symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. In addition to PTSD and depression, MST is linked to difficulties in emotion regulation as well as poor treatment engagement. Thus, it is important to examine these correlates, and how they affect postintervention symptom reduction in this vulnerable population. The current study presents secondary data analyses from a randomized clinical trial comparing the efficacy of in-person versus telemedicine delivery of prolonged exposure therapy for female veterans with MST-related PTSD (n = 151). Results of the study found that changes in difficulties with emotion regulation predicted postintervention depressive symptoms but not postintervention PTSD symptoms. Neither postintervention depressive nor PTSD symptoms were affected by treatment dosing (i.e., number of sessions attended) nor treatment condition (i.e., in-person vs. telemedicine). Findings from the current study provide preliminary evidence that decreases in difficulties with emotion regulation during PTSD treatment are associated with decreases in depressive symptom severity.

Meta-Analysis of the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Adults With Comorbid Severe Mental Illness.

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of psychosocial treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among individuals with a comorbid severe mental illness (SMI; ie, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder).Data Sources: PubMed, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Cochrane Library were searched from January 1998 to March 2020 using keywords related to PTSD, treatment, and severe mental illness.Study Selection: All clinical trials for PTSD psychotherapy among individuals with SMI were included. From 38 potentially eligible studies, a total of 14 clinical trials across 684 individuals with comorbid SMI and PTSD were identified and included in the analysis.Data Extraction: Data on demographic, SMI diagnosis, symptom severity, sample attrition, and treatment protocol received were extracted. Effect size calculations and subsequent meta-analyses were conducted using the Meta-Analysis Package for R (metafor) version 2.1-0 in R (3.6.0).Results: PTSD treatments had a large effect on PTSD outcomes among individuals with SMI, with patients experiencing a standard deviation reduction in PTSD symptomatology pre- to post-treatment (g = -1.009, P < .001, k = 34). Prolonged exposure (g = -1.464; P < .001; SE = 0.276; k = 5), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (g = -1.351; P < .001; SE = 0.276; k = 5), and brief treatment program (g = -1.009; P < .001; SE = 0.284; k = 5) had the largest effects on PTSD symptoms.Conclusions: Although underrepresented in the PTSD literature, PTSD psychotherapies are effective for individuals with SMI. Treatments with an exposure-based component may have greater efficacy in this clinical population.

Rumination Mediates the Relationship Between Negative Affect and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Female Interpersonal Trauma Survivors.

Prior research has identified both rumination and negative affect (NA) as dimensional constructs related to the development and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). While both dimensions demonstrate significant positive relationships with symptoms of PTSD, the relationship between the two within the context of the disorder has yet to be explored. Consistent with prior research in the social anxiety literature, the present study seeks to examine a model of mediation by which rumination accounts for the significant relationship between NA and PTSD symptoms. Participants included 65 female interpersonal trauma survivors diagnosed with PTSD using structured, clinician-administered interviews. Both NA and rumination were observed as significant predictors of PTSD symptoms, and the variables were significantly associated with each other. However, NA was no longer a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms when rumination was entered into the mediation model, suggesting full mediation of the relationship by rumination. Results from the current study suggest a complex relationship between NA and rumination in interpersonal trauma survivors with PTSD, such that a ruminative cognitive coping style may either mitigate or exacerbate PTSD symptoms in the presence of sustained negative emotion. The current findings provide support for a cognitive model of PTSD, within which PTSD symptoms are influenced via negative, ruminative cognitions. Primary implications of these results include (a) the consideration of assessment of rumination in interpersonal trauma survivors with PTSD in clinical settings; (b) the selection of treatment that may address a ruminative cognitive style in this population, given the mediation between subjective distress and PTSD symptoms by rumination; and (c) the necessity for the validation of this mediation model within other traumatized populations.

Emotion Dysregulation Predicts Dropout from Prolonged Exposure Treatment among Women Veterans with Military Sexual Trauma-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Military sexual trauma (MST) is notably prevalent among military personnel and can result in mental and physical health problems, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Although there are several evidence-based treatments for MST-related PTSD, including prolonged exposure (PE) therapy, it is unclear what factors are associated with premature termination (i.e., dropout) from this treatment. Given the popularity of PE as an evidence-based treatment for PTSD, the examination of variables that influence dropout from PE among women veterans with MST is warranted. Identification of these specific factors may assist clinicians in addressing the unique symptom profiles and potential barriers to treatment access for individual MST survivors. METHODS: The current study presents secondary data analyses from an ongoing randomized clinical trial that compared the effectiveness of PE delivered in person to delivery via telemedicine for women veterans with MST-related PTSD (n = 136). RESULTS: A total of 50% of participants dropped out from the study (n = 68). Difficulties with emotion regulation at baseline were associated with treatment dropout (odds ratio, 1.03; p < .01), whereas baseline PTSD and demographic factors were not. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from the current study indicate that emotion regulation skills deficits contribute to PE dropout and may be an appropriate target to address in future clinical trials for PTSD treatment.

A Critical Review of Negative Affect and the Application of CBT for PTSD.

Forms of cognitive and behavioral therapies (CBTs), including prolonged exposure and cognitive processing therapy, have been empirically validated as efficacious treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, the assumption that PTSD develops from dysregulated fear circuitry possesses limitations that detract from the potential efficacy of CBT approaches. An analysis of these limitations may provide insight into improvements to the CBT approach to PTSD, beginning with an examination of negative affect as an essential component to the conceptualization of PTSD and a barrier to the implementation of CBT for PTSD. As such, the literature regarding the impact of negative affect on aspects of cognition (i.e., attention, processing, memory, and emotion regulation) necessary for the successful application of CBT was systematically reviewed. Several literature databases were explored (e.g., PsychINFO and PubMed), resulting in 25 articles that met criteria for inclusion. Results of the review indicated that high negative affect generally disrupts cognitive processes, resulting in a narrowed focus on stimuli of a negative valence, increased rumination of negative autobiographical memories, inflexible preservation of initial information, difficulty considering counterfactuals, reliance on emotional reasoning, and misinterpretation of neutral or ambiguous events as negative, among others. With the aim to improve treatment efficacy of CBT for PTSD, suggestions to incorporate negative affect into research and clinical contexts are discussed.

An examination of sleep quality in veterans with a dual diagnosis of PTSD and severe mental illness.

Poor sleep quality is one of the most frequently reported symptoms by veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and by veterans with severe mental illness (SMI; i.e., schizophrenia spectrum disorders, bipolar disorder, major depression with or without psychotic features). However, little is known about the compounding effects of co-occurring PTSD/SMI on sleep quality in this population. Given the high rates of comorbidity and poor functional outcomes associated with sleep dysfunction, there is a need to better understand patterns of poor sleep quality in this population. The present study provides a description of sleep quality in veterans with a dual diagnosis of PTSD/SMI relative to veterans with PTSD only. Results indicated that, despite similar reports of PTSD symptom severity between the groups, veterans with PTSD/SMI reported higher levels of poor sleep quality than veterans only diagnosed with PTSD. Specifically, veterans with PTSD/SMI reported significantly greater difficulties with sleep onset and overall more sleep disturbance than their non-SMI counterparts. Implications of the findings are discussed within the context of an existing model of insomnia and suggest that more comprehensive sleep assessment and the provision of targeted sleep interventions may be helpful for those with a dual diagnosis of PTSD/SMI.

Affect and neural activity in women with PTSD during a task of emotional interference.

BACKGROUND: The current study sought to determine the relationship between self-reported dimensions of affect and activation in brain regions associated with emotion regulation in PTSD during a task of non-conscious emotional processing in interpersonal trauma survivors with PTSD and healthy controls. METHODS: Participants included 52 women diagnosed with PTSD and 18 female healthy controls. All participants completed a clinical assessment including the SCID, CAPS, and PANAS followed by a functional MRI assessment including a task of implicit emotional conflict. RESULTS: When PTSD participants were oriented to fearful faces, negative affect (NA) was inversely related to activation in the left amygdala and positive affect (PA) was inversely related to activation in the right amygdala. When ignoring fearful faces, NA was positively associated with activation in the right parahippocampal gyrus and PA was inversely related to activation in the left hippocampus. Similar results were observed in healthy controls regarding PA. However, NA was not significantly related to any region of interest in healthy controls. LIMITATIONS: Limitations include the homogeneity of the healthy controls with regard to racial diversity, results may only be specific to female interpersonal trauma survivors with PTSD, and neutral faces within the conflict task may be perceived as negative by clinical samples. CONCLUSIONS: Persistent, increased NA may represent a proxy for disruptions in emotional processing in interpersonal trauma survivors with PTSD. As such, clinicians may prioritize increasing emotional awareness through emotion regulation and/or distress tolerance strategies in this population.

Affective Dispositions and PTSD Symptom Clusters in Female Interpersonal Trauma Survivors.

Interpersonal trauma (IPT) against women can have dire psychological consequences including persistent maladaptive changes in the subjective experience of affect. Contemporary literature has firmly established heightened negative affect (NA) as a risk and maintenance factor for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, the relationship between NA and PTSD symptoms is not well understood within IPT survivors, the majority of whom are female, as much of this research has focused on combat veterans. In addition, the connection between positive affect (PA) and PTSD symptoms has yet to be examined. With increased emphasis on "negative alterations in cognitions and mood . . ." as an independent symptom cluster of PTSD in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM-5), understanding the relationship between self-reported affectivity and the classic PTSD symptom clusters may be increasingly useful in differentiating symptom presentations of trauma-related psychopathology. The current study directly compared self-reported trait NA and PA with total severity and frequency cluster scores from the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) in 54 female survivors of IPT who met criteria for PTSD. Results identify NA (but not PA) as a consistent predictor of total PTSD symptoms and, specifically, re-experiencing symptoms.

The impact of ecological momentary assessment on posttraumatic stress symptom trajectory.

Ecological momentary assessment includes continuous, real-time gathering of self-report data in a participant's natural environment. The current study evaluated the possible impact of this assessment strategy on severity of posttraumatic stress (PTS) in a sample of participants who reported experiencing a past traumatic event. Participants with clinically elevated PTS symptoms reported symptom severity at three time-points: during an initial screening, following an unmonitored period, and following two weeks of monitoring. During the monitoring period, participants carried an Android device which prompted them to report PTS symptoms and negative emotions six times daily. PTS severity scores were then compared across these three time-points. Results indicated that participating in the ecological momentary assessment protocol was associated with a significant reduction in PTS severity, whereas significant changes were not noted over the unmonitored control condition. The authors conclude that ecological momentary assessment may have therapeutic value even when not combined with formal intervention, and it may be a useful tool for improving the efficiency of a stepped-care approach to treating PTS symptoms.

The Role of Rumination in Elevating Perceived Stress in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

Rumination has been shown to be important in both the maintenance and severity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD). Increased rumination has also been linked to perceptions of increased stress, which in turn are significantly associated with increased PTSD severity. The present study sought to examine this relationship in more detail by means of a mediation analysis. Forty-nine female survivors of interpersonal violence who met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.; DSM-IV-TR) criteria for PTSD were administered the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS), the Ruminative Thought Style Questionnaire (RTS), the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), and the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). Results indicated that perceived stress mediates the relationship between rumination and PTSD, but did not do so after controlling for depression. Such results provide further evidence for the overlap between PTSD and MDD, and, in broader clinical practice, translate to a sharper focus on rumination and perceived stress as maintenance factors in both disorders.

Altered emotional interference processing in the amygdala and insula in women with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is characterized by distinct behavioral and physiological changes. Given the significant impairments related to PTSD, examination of the biological underpinnings is crucial to the development of theoretical models and improved treatments of PTSD. METHODS: We used an attentional interference task using emotional distracters to test for top-down versus bottom-up dysfunction in the interaction of cognitive-control circuitry and emotion-processing circuitry. A total of 32 women with PTSD (based on an interpersonal trauma) and 21 matched controls were tested. Event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging was carried out as participants directly attended to, or attempted to ignore, fear-related stimuli. RESULTS: Compared to controls, patients with PTSD showed hyperactivity in several brain regions, including the amygdala, insula, as well as dorsal lateral and ventral PFC regions. CONCLUSIONS: These results are consistent with previous studies that have higher amygdala and insular activation in PTSD subjects. However, inhibition of suppression of PFC regions is inconsistent with the fear circuitry model hypothesized by prior research. We suggest that the specific emotional conflict task used appears to target implicit or automatic emotional regulation instead of explicit or effortful emotional regulation. This is particularly relevant as it posited that emotional regulatory difficulties in anxiety disorders such as PTSD appear to occur in implicit forms of emotion regulation.