Two-Photon Probes for Golgi Apparatus: Detection of Golgi Apparatus in Live Tissue by Two-Photon Microscopy.

We have developed blue- and yellow-emitting two-photon probes (BGolgi-blue and PGolgi-yellow) from 6-(benzo[ d]oxazol-2-yl)-2-naphthalylamine and 2,5-bis(benzo[ d]oxazol-2-yl)pyrazine derivatives as the fluorophores and trans-Golgi-network peptide (SDYQRL) as the Golgi-apparatus-targeting moiety. HeLa cells labeled with BGolgi-blue and PGolgi-yellow emitted two-photon-excited fluorescence at 462 and 560 nm, respectively, with effective two-photon-action cross-section values of 1860 and 1600 × 10-50 cm4·s/photon, respectively. The probes can detect the Golgi apparatus in live cells and deep inside live tissue via two-photon microscopy at widely separated wavelength regions with high selectivity and minimal pH interference, and they are photostable and have low cytotoxicity.

Two-Photon Probe for TNF-α. Assessment of the Transmembrane TNF-α Level in Human Colon Tissue by Two-Photon Microscopy.

We developed Pyr1-infliximab: a two-photon probe for TNF-α. Pyr1-infliximab showed absorption maxima at 280 and 438 nm and an emission maximum at 610 nm in an aqueous buffer and effective two-photon action cross-section values of (520-2830) × 10-50 cm4s/photon in RAW 264.7 cells. After this probe was labeled, it was possible to detect Pyr1-infliximab-transmembrane TNF-α complexes in a live cell and to determine the relative proportion of these complexes in human colon tissues. This proportion among healthy, possibly inflamed, and inflamed tissues of patients with ulcerative colitis was found to be 1.0/4.5/10. This probe may find useful applications for selective detection of transmembrane TNF-α in a live cell or tissue, for quantification of inflammation in human colon tissue or of antidrug antibodies in patients who stop responding to anti-TNF therapy, and for monitoring of the response to this therapy.

Two-Photon Probes for pH: Detection of Human Colon Cancer using Two-Photon Microscopy.

We have developed two-photon (TP) pH-sensitive probes (BH-2 and BHEt-1) that exhibit absorption and emission maxima at 370 and 466 nm, and TP absorption cross-section values of 51 and 61 GM (1 GM = 10-50cm4s/photon), respectively, at 750 nm and pH 3.0 in a universal buffer (0.1 M citric acid, 0.1 M KH2PO4, 0.1 M Na2B4O7, 0.1 M Tris, 0.1 M KCl)/1,4-dioxane (7/3) solution. The TPM images of CCD-18co (a normal colon cell line) and HCT116 cells (a colon cancer cell line) labeled with BH-2 were too dim to be distinguished. When the same cells were labeled with BHEt-1, however, the TPM image of the HCT116 cells was much brighter than that of CCD-18co cells, and the relative proportion of the acidic vesicles (Pacid) of the former was 5-fold larger than that of latter. BHEt-1 could also differentiate HepG2 cells (a human liver cancer cell line) from LX-2 cells (a human hepatic stellate cell line) with a 6-fold larger Pacid value. Human colon cancer tissues labeled with BHEt-1 showed similar results, demonstrating much brighter TPM images and 6-fold larger Pacid values compared to normal tissue. These results suggest the potential utility of BHEt-1 for detecting colon cancer in human tissues using TPM.

Two-Photon Tracer for Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor-2: Detection of Breast Cancer in a Live Tissue.

We have developed a two-photon fluorescent tracer (Pyr-affibody) that shows high selectivity for human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2). Pyr-affibody showed absorption and emission maxima at 439 and 574 nm, respectively, with a two-photon absorption cross-section value of 40 × 10-50 cm4s/photon (GM) at 750 nm in aqueous buffer solution. The effective two-photon action cross-section value measured in HeLa cells was 600 GM at 730 nm, a value sufficient to obtain bright two-photon microscopy (TPM) images. Using Pyr-affibody, it was possible to detect HER-2 overexpressing cells and breast cancers at a depth of 90-130 µm in live mouse tissue by TPM.

Readily Accessible and Predictable Naphthalene-Based Two-Photon Fluorophore with Full Visible-Color Coverage.

Herein we report 22 acedan-derived, two-photon fluorophores with synthetic feasibility and full coverage of visible wavelength emission. The emission wavelengths were predicted by computational analysis, which enabled us to visualize multicolor images by two-photon excitation with single wavelength, and to design a turn-on, two-photon fluorescence sensor for endogenous H2 O2 in Raw 264.7 macrophage and rat brain hippocampus ex vivo.

Octupolar molecules for nonlinear optics: from molecular design to crystals and films with large second-harmonic generation.

We summarize the nonlinear optical (NLO) properties of octupolar molecules, crystals, and films developed in our laboratory. We present the design strategy, structure-property relationship, and second-order NLO properties of 1,3,5-trinitro- and 1,3,5-tricyano-2,4,6-tris(p-diethylaminostyryl)benzene (TTB) derivatives, TTB crystals, and films prepared by free-casting TTB in poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). The first hyperpolarizability of TTB was fivefold larger than that of the dipolar analogue. Moreover, the TTB crystal showed unprecedentedly large second-harmonic generation (SHG). While TTB crystal films (20 wt% TTB/PMMA) on various substrates showed appreciable SHG values, the cylinder film exhibited much larger SHG values and large electro-optic (EO) coefficients. The large SHG values and EO coefficients, as well as the high thermal stability of the cylinder film, will make it a potential candidate for NLO device applications.

Two-photon probe for Cu²âº with an internal reference: quantitative estimation of Cu²âº in human tissues by two-photon microscopy.

Copper ions play a crucial role in living systems as cofactors of numerous metalloenzymes. To quantitatively estimate the Cu(2+) concentration in human tissue, we have developed a two-photon (TP) probe with an internal reference (ACCu2) that shows significant TP action cross-section and high selectivity for Cu(2+) and can quantitatively estimate the Cu(2+) concentration in human colon tissues by dual-color two-photon microscopy (TPM) imaging with minimum interference from other competing metal ions or pH and minimum cytotoxicity and photostability problems. The Cu(2+) concentrations in human normal colon, polyp, and colon cancer tissues were found to be 8.3 ± 0.3, 13 ± 2, and 22 ± 3 µM, respectively. This result suggests that ACCu2 may be useful for the diagnosis of human colon cancer.

Two-photon fluorescent probes for metal ions in live tissues.

Two-photon microscopy (TPM) is a new imaging tool that can detect biological targets deep inside a live tissue. To faciltate the use of TPM in biomedical research, a variety of two-photon (TP) probes for specific applications are needed. In this Forum Article, we describe the design strategy, photophysical properties, and biological imaging applications of a selection of our recent studies in the development of TP probes for metal ions. Small-molecule TP turn-on probes, organelle-targeted probes, and multicolor emissive probes for dual-color imaging are briefly reviewed.

Dual-color imaging of cytosolic and mitochondrial zinc ions in live tissues with two-photon fluorescent probes.

We report two-photon probes for Zn(2+) ions that can simultaneously detect cytosolic and mitochondrial Zn(2+) ions in live cells and living tissues at 115 mm depth by dual-color TPM imaging with minimum interference from other biologically relevant species.

PTRF/cavin-1 is essential for multidrug resistance in cancer cells.

Since detergent-resistant lipid rafts play important roles in multidrug resistance (MDR), their comprehensive proteomics could provide new insights to understand the underlying molecular mechanism of MDR in cancer cells. In the present work, lipid rafts were isolated from MCF-7 and adriamycin-resistant MCF-7/ADR cells and their proteomes were analyzed by label-free quantitative proteomics. Polymerase I and transcript release factor (PTRF)/cavin-1 was measured to be upregulated along with multidrug-resistant P-glycoprotein, caveolin-1, and serum deprivation protein response/cavin-2 in the lipid rafts of MCF-7/ADR cells. PTRF knockdown led to reduction in the amount of lipid rafts on the surface of MCF7/ADR cells as determined by cellular staining with lipid raft-specific dyes such as S-laurdan2 and FITC-conjugated cholera toxin B. PTRF knockdown also reduced MDR in MCF-7/ADR cells. These data indicate that PTRF is necessary for MDR in cancer cells via the fortification of lipid rafts.

A ratiometric two-photon fluorescent probe reveals reduction in mitochondrial H2S production in Parkinson's disease gene knockout astrocytes.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a multifunctional signaling molecule that exerts neuroprotective effects in oxidative stress. In this article, we report a mitochondria-localized two-photon probe, SHS-M2, that can be excited by 750 nm femtosecond pulses and employed for ratiometric detection of H2S in live astrocytes and living brain slices using two-photon microscopy (TPM). SHS-M2 shows bright two-photon-excited fluorescence and a marked change in emission color from blue to yellow in response to H2S, low cytotoxicity, easy loading, and minimum interference from other biologically relevant species including reactive sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen species, thereby allowing quantitative analysis of H2S levels. Molecular TPM imaging with SHS-M2 in astrocytes revealed that there is a correlation between the ratiometric analysis and expression levels of cystathionine ß-synthase (CBS), the major enzyme that catalyzes H2S production. In studies involving DJ-1, a Parkinson's disease (PD) gene, attenuated H2S production in comparison with wild-type controls was observed in DJ-1-knockout astrocytes and brain slices, where CBS expression was decreased. These findings demonstrate that reduced H2S levels in astrocytes may contribute to the development of PD and that SHS-M2 may be useful as a marker to detect a risk of neurodegenerative diseases, including PD.

Quantitative estimation of the total sulfide concentration in live tissues by two-photon microscopy.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a newly recognized transmitter, which protects various organs from oxidative stress. In this article, we report a ratiometric two-photon probe, TFCA, which can be excited by 750 nm femtosecond pulses, shows a 110-fold increase in the intensity ratio upon reaction with HS(-) and high selectivity for HS(-) and can visualize the total sulfide ([H2S] + [HS(-)]) distribution in live tissue by two-photon microscopy (TPM). We also developed a kinetic method to quantitatively estimate the total sulfide concentration ([H2S] + [HS(-)]) in live tissues. The kinetic method allowed us to measure the observed rate constants (kobs) for the sulfide-induced deazidation reaction of TFCA in live cells and tissues using TPM. The total sulfide concentration was calculated by using kobs = k2[HS(-)], with the k2 value determined in HEPES/EtOH (1/1, pH = 7.2), and [H2S]/[HS(-)] = [H(+)]/Ka. The total sulfide concentration was found to be nearly zero in HeLa cells and 4-7 µM in rat colon tissues.

Dual-color imaging of magnesium/calcium ion activities with two-photon fluorescent probes.

We report two-photon probes (FMg1 and FMg2) that can selectively detect intracellular free Mg(2+) ([Mg(2+)](i)) in live cells and tissues by two-photon microscopy. Combined with BCaM, a two-photon probe for near-membrane Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](m)), FMg2 allows dual-color imaging of Mg(2+)/Ca(2+) activities in live cells and [Mg(2+)](i) /[Ca(2+)](m) distributions in live tissues at a depth of 100-200 µm.

A small-molecule two-photon probe for nitric oxide in living tissues.

Two-photon microscopy (TPM) has become an indispensable tool in the study of biology and medicine due to the capability of this method for molecular imaging deep inside intact tissues. For the maximum utilization of TPM, a variety of two-photon (TP) probes for specific applications are needed. In this article, we report a small-molecule TP probe (ANO1) for nitric oxide (NO) that shows a rapid and specific NO response, a 68-fold fluorescence enhancement in response to NO, and a maximum TP-action cross-section of 170 GM (GM: 10(-50) cm(4) photon(-1)) upon reaction with excess NO. This probe can be easily loaded into cells and tissues and can real-time monitor NO in living tissues at 100-180 µm depth for longer than 1200 s through the use of TPM, with minimum interference from other biologically relevant species.

Detection of nickel in fish organs with a two-photon fluorescent probe.

Molecular imaging by two-photon microscopy (TPM) has become indispensable to the study of biology/medicine owing to its capability of imaging deep inside intact tissues. To make TPM a more-versatile tool, a large variety of two-photon probes are needed. Herein, we report a new two-photon fluorescent probe (ANi2) that can be excited by 750 nm femtosecond pulses and detect Ni(2+) ions in fresh fish organs at 90-175 µm depth without interference from the pH value or from other biologically relevant species through the use of TPM. TPM images of fish organs labeled with ANi2 revealed that Ni(2+) ions accumulate in fish organs in the order: kidney > heart > gill ≥ liver. Moreover, a linear relationship was found between the two-photon-excited fluorescence (TPEF) and the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry intensities (ICP-MS), thereby allowing the quantitative measurement of Ni(2+) ions in live tissue.

Measurement of pH values in human tissues by two-photon microscopy.

pH values go live! A ratiometric two-photon (TP) probe (NP1, see scheme) that has a significant TP action cross-section, high photostability, negligible toxicity, and can estimate pH values in live cells and human tissues by two-photon microscopy is described. NP1 can detect the difference in pH between live cells from the gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) and the lower esophageal sphincter of patients with and without esophagitis.

Organelle-specific blue-emitting two-photon probes for calcium ions: Combination with green-emitting two-photon probe for simultaneous detection of proton ions.

In this study, we developed organelle-specific blue-emitting two-photon (TP) probes for Ca2+ (BCa-1, BCa-2mito, and BCa-3mem), with absorption maxima (λmax) at 350-358 nm, emission maxima (λfl) at 464-466 nm, and TP action cross-section (Φδmax) values of 55-70 × 10-50 cm4s/photon, in the presence of excess Ca2+ at 750 nm. Moreover, the probes had dissociation constants of 0.18, 2.7, and 100 µM, respectively, which are appropriate values for sensing Ca2+ in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, and plasma membrane, respectively. The measurements were conducted using a calcium calibration buffer (10 mM 3-[N-morpholino]propanesulfonic acid and 100 mM KCl) at pH 7.2. The TP microscopy results revealed that the probes could facilitate the real-time detection of Ca2+ in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, and plasma membranes of live cells and tissues. Additionally, we developed a green-emitting TP probe for H+ (FHEt-1lyso) with λmax = 359 nm, λfl = 571 nm, and Φδmax = 70 × 10-50 cm4s/photon at pH 4.3 in a universal buffer (0.1 M citric acid, 0.1 M KH2PO4, 0.1 M Na2B4O7, 0.1 M tris[hydroxymethyl]aminomethane, and 0.1 M KCl); this probe could detect H+ in the lysosomes. Using BCa-1 and FHEt-1lyso, it was possible to simultaneously monitor the changes in cytosolic Ca2+ and lysosomal H+ concentrations in live cells and tissues using dual-color TP microscopy in real time. When used with TP probes emitting wavelengths of green light or longer, these blue-emitting Ca2+ probes can be used to investigate the physiological role of Ca2+ in cellular organelles as well as the crosstalk between Ca2+ and other metal ions in specific organelles.

A mitochondrial-targeted two-photon probe for zinc ion.

We report a two-photon probe (SZn-Mito) for mitochondrial zinc ions ([Zn2+]m). This probe shows a 7-fold enhancement of two-photon-excited fluorescence in response to Zn2+ with a dissociation constant (Kd(TP)) of 3.1 ± 0.1 nM and pH insensitivity in the biologically relevant range, allowing the detection of [Zn2+]m in a rat hippocampal slice at a depth of 100−200 µm without interference from other metal ions through the use of two-photon microscopy.

Ratiometric detection of mitochondrial thiols with a two-photon fluorescent probe.

We report a ratiometric two-photon probe (SSH-Mito) for mitochondrial thiols. This probe shows a marked blue-to-yellow emission color change in response to RSH, a significant two-photon cross section, good mitochondrial thiol selectivity, low cytotoxicity, and insensitivity to pH over the biologically relevant pH range, allowing the direct visualization of RSH levels in live cells as well as in living tissues at 90-190 µm depth without interference from other biologically relevant species through the use of two-photon microscopy.