Death caps (Amanita phalloides) frequently establish from sexual spores, but individuals can grow large and live for more than a decade in invaded forests.

Global change is reshaping Earth's biodiversity, but the changing distributions of nonpathogenic fungi remain largely undocumented, as do mechanisms enabling invasions. The ectomycorrhizal Amanita phalloides is native to Europe and invasive in North America. Using population genetics and genomics, we sought to describe the life history traits of this successfully invading symbiotic fungus. To test whether death caps spread underground using hyphae, or aboveground using sexual spores, we mapped and genotyped mushrooms from European and US sites. Larger genetic individuals (genets) would suggest spread mediated by vegetative growth, while many small genets would suggest dispersal mediated by spores. To test whether genets are ephemeral or persistent, we also sampled from populations over time. At nearly every site and across all time points, mushrooms resolve into small genets. Individuals frequently establish from sexual spores. But at one Californian site, a single individual measuring nearly 10 m across dominated. At two Californian sites, the same genetic individuals were discovered in 2004, 2014, and 2015, suggesting single individuals (both large and small) can reproduce repeatedly over relatively long timescales. A flexible life history strategy combining both mycelial growth and spore dispersal appears to underpin the invasion of this deadly perennial ectomycorrhizal fungus.

Molecular underpinnings of methyl jasmonate-induced resistance in Norway spruce.

In response to various stimuli, plants acquire resistance against pests and/or pathogens. Such acquired or induced resistance allows plants to rapidly adapt to their environment. Spraying the bark of mature Norway spruce (Picea abies) trees with the phytohormone methyl jasmonate (MeJA) enhances resistance to tree-killing bark beetles and their associated phytopathogenic fungi. Analysis of spruce chemical defenses and beetle colonization success suggests that MeJA treatment both directly induces immune responses and primes inducible defenses for a faster and stronger response to subsequent beetle attack. We used metabolite and transcriptome profiling to explore the mechanisms underlying MeJA-induced resistance in Norway spruce. We demonstrated that MeJA treatment caused substantial changes in the bark transcriptional response to a triggering stress (mechanical wounding). Profiling of mRNA expression showed a suite of spruce inducible defenses are primed following MeJA treatment. Although monoterpenes and diterpene resin acids increased more rapidly after wounding in MeJA-treated than control bark, expression of their biosynthesis genes did not. We suggest that priming of inducible defenses is part of a complex mixture of defense responses that underpins the increased resistance against bark beetle colonization observed in Norway spruce. This study provides the most detailed insights yet into the mechanisms underlying induced resistance in a long-lived gymnosperm.

The Leprosy Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (LPEP) programme: update and interim analysis.

Innovative approaches are required to further enhance leprosy control, reduce the number of people developing leprosy, and curb transmission. Early case detection, contact screening, and chemoprophylaxis currently is the most promising approach to achieve this goal. The Leprosy Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (LPEP) programme generates evidence on the feasibility of integrating contact tracing and single-dose rifampicin (SDR) administration into routine leprosy control activities in different settings. The LPEP programme is implemented within the leprosy control programmes of Brazil, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. Focus is on three key interventions: tracing the contacts of newly diagnosed leprosy patients; screening the contacts for leprosy; and administering SDR to eligible contacts. Country-specific protocol adaptations refer to contact definition, minimal age for SDR, and staff involved. Central coordination, detailed documentation and rigorous supervision ensure quality evidence. Around 2 years of field work had been completed in seven countries by July 2017. The 5,941 enrolled index patients (89·4% of the registered) identified a total of 123,311 contacts, of which 99·1% were traced and screened. Among them, 406 new leprosy patients were identified (329/100,000), and 10,883 (8·9%) were excluded from SDR for various reasons. Also, 785 contacts (0·7%) refused the prophylactic treatment with SDR. Overall, SDR was administered to 89·0% of the listed contacts. Post-exposure prophylaxis with SDR is safe; can be integrated into the routines of different leprosy control programmes; and is generally well accepted by index patients, their contacts and the health workforce. The programme has also invigorated local leprosy control.

Assessing the feasibility of integration of self-care for filarial lymphoedema into existing community leprosy self-help groups in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Lymphatic filariasis (LF) and leprosy are disabling infectious diseases endemic in Nepal. LF infection can lead to lymphoedema and hydrocoele, while secondary effects of leprosy infection include impairments to hands, eyes and feet. The disabling effects of both conditions can be managed through self-care and the supportive effects of self-help groups (SHGs). A network of SHGs exists for people affected by leprosy in four districts in Nepal's Central Development Region, however no such service exists for people affected by LF. The aim of this study was to determine the feasibility of integrating LF affected people into existing leprosy SHGs in this area. METHODS: A survey was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire to elicit information on: (i) participant characteristics, clinical manifestation and disease burden; (ii) participants' knowledge of management of their condition and access to services; and (iii) participants' knowledge and perceptions of the alternate condition (LF affected participants' knowledge of leprosy and vice versa) and attitudes towards integration. RESULTS: A total of 52 LF affected and 53 leprosy affected participants were interviewed from 14 SHGs. On average, leprosy affected participants were shown to have 1.8 times greater knowledge of self-care techniques, and practiced 2.5 times more frequently than LF affected participants. Only a quarter of LF affected participants had accessed a health service for their condition, compared with 94.3% of leprosy affected people accessing a service (including SHGs), at least once a week. High levels of stigma were perceived by both groups towards the alternate condition, however, the majority of LF (79%) and leprosy (94.3%) affected participants stated that they would consider attending an integrated SHG. CONCLUSIONS: LF affected participants need to increase their knowledge of self-care and access to health services. Despite stigma being a potential barrier, attitudes towards integration were positive, suggesting that the SHGs may be a good platform for LF affected people to start self-care in this area. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This is not a registered trial.

Fungal diversity and seasonal succession in ash leaves infected by the invasive ascomycete Hymenoscyphus fraxineus.

High biodiversity is regarded as a barrier against biological invasions. We hypothesized that the invasion success of the pathogenic ascomycete Hymenoscyphus fraxineus threatening common ash in Europe relates to differences in dispersal and colonization success between the invader and the diverse native competitors. Ash leaf mycobiome was monitored by high-throughput sequencing of the fungal internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) and quantitative PCR profiling of H. fraxineus DNA. Initiation of ascospore production by H. fraxineus after overwintering was followed by pathogen accumulation in asymptomatic leaves. The induction of necrotic leaf lesions coincided with escalation of H. fraxineus DNA levels and changes in proportion of biotrophs, followed by an increase of ubiquitous endophytes with pathogenic potential. H. fraxineus uses high propagule pressure to establish in leaves as quiescent thalli that switch to pathogenic mode once these thalli reach a certain threshold - the massive feedback from the saprophytic phase enables this fungus to challenge host defenses and the resident competitors in mid-season when their density in host tissues is still low. Despite the general correspondence between the ITS-1 and ITS-2 datasets, marker biases were observed, which suggests that multiple barcodes provide better overall representation of mycobiomes.

How to improve early case detection in low endemic areas with pockets of leprosy: a study of newly detected leprosy patients in Guizhou Province, People's Republic of China.

Although leprosy in China is controlled at a low endemic level, the number of new cases in Guizhou province has shown no significant decrease over the past 20 years. Guizhou remains the province with the second highest prevalence in China. The authors conducted a study in which the characteristics of newly detected leprosy cases, found between 2008 and 2012 in Guizhou, were analysed. These cases represented people from pocket areas of leprosy in a generally low endemic environment. The purpose of the study was to understand characters of newly detected cases, strong points and weakness of routine detection approaches for improving the effectiveness of early case detection in the future. The analysis considered data that was collected from a 'Leprosy Management Information' report system and also from annual statistical reports of leprosy that reflect the situation throughout the province. 1274 new patients were detected in Guizhou from 2008 to 2012. That number included 58 (4.6%) children (0-14 years old). The average age of patients at diagnosis was 42.6 ± 16.5 years. The proportion of people with WHO Grade 2 disability (WHO DG2) among new patients was 35.7% and the proportion of people with Grade 1 disability (DG1) constituted 10.1%. The average delay before diagnosis after the onset of symptoms of leprosy was 41.7 ± 49.8 months. Suspect survey was a major method by which most cases were detected. Trough this method 790 (62.0%) new patients were detected. It was also in this group that the highest proportion of people with WHO DG2 359 of 790 (45.4%) was reported. Self- reporting, diagnosis at a general skin clinic, household contact examination, and spot surveys accounted for 13.0%, 11.8%, 11.5% and 1.7% of other cases detected respectively. It was generally found that cases detected through household contact examinations were earlier cases (delay to diagnosis < 24 months = 70.7%). It was also recorded that fewer of these had WHO DG2 (12.9%). The proportion of men with WHO DG2 was higher than that of females (38.2% compared with 28.8%). The proportion of Han Chinese new cases with WHO DG2 was significantly higher than that of the main minority group (41.5% compared with 29.2%). The proportion of new cases among the main minority group who self-reported (50%) was significantly higher than those detected through other detection approaches. Detecting leprosy early in low endemic situations where pockets persist was difficult to achieve. The authors suggest that if more early patients are to be detected earlier, the quality of suspect surveys and household contact examination should be improved. Professional training and supervision might affect that result. Greater emphasis should be given to the role of general skin clinics as surveillance sites and advocacy for new health policy that will enhance the detection leprosy should be sustained.

A Delphi exercise to refine the WHO three-point disability grading system for leprosy, and to develop guidelines to promote greater accuracy and reliability of WHO disability recording.

A Delphi Exercise was undertaken with two objectives: (1) To ascertain whether operational definitions for WHO Disability Grading could be formulated by consensus. (2) To develop a set of simple guidelines based on those definitions for the guidance of health workers. Fifteen people with general expertise in prevention of disability due to leprosy were invited to participate as Delphi panel members, twelve responded positively. Eight issues that commonly cause confusion provided foci for the exercise. Operational definitions aimed at resolving those issues were developed by consensus. Simple guidelines for health workers, based on those definitions were also created and supported by consensus. This paper presents the process followed and the outcomes gained from the endeavour.

The experiences and attitudes of people affected by leprosy who voluntarily undertake leprosy services in Nepal.

This paper is a record of the outcome of a focus group discussion in which 22 leprosy-affected self-help group facilitators related their experiences and attitudes associated with leprosy services which they voluntarily undertake. Enthusiasm to undertake leprosy services was general. The principal rewards for participation in such activities appear to have been social ascendance and self-esteem. Factors cited as being most likely to further motivate voluntary service reflected the perceived importance of personal reputation and the prestige of a clear association with Lalgadh Leprosy Services Centre.

From soil to sequence: filling the critical gap in genome-resolved metagenomics is essential to the future of soil microbial ecology.

Soil microbiomes are heterogeneous, complex microbial communities. Metagenomic analysis is generating vast amounts of data, creating immense challenges in sequence assembly and analysis. Although advances in technology have resulted in the ability to easily collect large amounts of sequence data, soil samples containing thousands of unique taxa are often poorly characterized. These challenges reduce the usefulness of genome-resolved metagenomic (GRM) analysis seen in other fields of microbiology, such as the creation of high quality metagenomic assembled genomes and the adoption of genome scale modeling approaches. The absence of these resources restricts the scale of future research, limiting hypothesis generation and the predictive modeling of microbial communities. Creating publicly available databases of soil MAGs, similar to databases produced for other microbiomes, has the potential to transform scientific insights about soil microbiomes without requiring the computational resources and domain expertise for assembly and binning.

The prevention of leprosy related disability as an integral component of the government health delivery programme in Indonesia: perspectives on implementation.

This paper presents a record of three interviews with groups of Ministry of Health personnel and consultants that took place in Jakarta, Indonesia in May 2012. Those contributing to the first interview were provincial and district supervisors with responsibility for leprosy. Those contributing to the second interview were consultants, three of whom were seconded to the Ministry of Health and one was a WHO consultant. A third interview was conducted with the Head and a technical staff member of the Sub Directorate of Leprosy and Yaws Control Programme, Ministry of Health, Indonesia. Leprosy control in Indonesia had been targeted for further enquiry after it became apparent, through an earlier survey of national programme managers and consultants, that the programme had been relatively successful in integrating POD into the government health delivery programme. The perspectives of significant representatives and actors in the national programme were recorded through the interviews undertaken in Jakarta. Limitations This report does not purport to be a study of integration of leprosy services in Indonesia. The perspectives of representatives and significant actors are offered here to enhance understanding of factors that contributed to POD becoming a routine component of general health care in Indonesia. It is also declared here that no independent verification of statements was undertaken and that the effectiveness of measures taken to integrate leprosy related POD has not been independently evaluated.

Sex-biased gene and microRNA expression in the developing mouse brain is associated with neurodevelopmental functions and neurological phenotypes.

BACKGROUND: Sex differences pose a challenge and an opportunity in biomedical research. Understanding how sex chromosomes and hormones affect disease-causing mechanisms will shed light on the mechanisms underlying predominantly idiopathic sex-biased neurodevelopmental disorders such as ADHD, schizophrenia, and autism. Gene expression is a crucial conduit for the influence of sex on developmental processes; therefore, this study focused on sex differences in gene expression and the regulation of gene expression. The increasing interest in microRNAs (miRNAs), small, non-coding RNAs, for their contribution to normal and pathological neurodevelopment prompted us to test how miRNA expression differs between the sexes in the developing brain. METHODS: High-throughput sequencing approaches were used to identify transcripts, including miRNAs, that showed significantly different expression between male and female brains on day 15.5 of development (E15.5). RESULTS: Robust sex differences were identified for some genes and miRNAs, confirming the influence of biological sex on RNA. Many miRNAs that exhibit the greatest differences between males and females have established roles in neurodevelopment, implying that sex-biased expression may drive sex differences in developmental processes. In addition to highlighting sex differences for individual miRNAs, gene ontology analysis suggested several broad categories in which sex-biased RNAs might act to establish sex differences in the embryonic mouse brain. Finally, mining publicly available SNP data indicated that some sex-biased miRNAs reside near the genomic regions associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these findings reinforce the importance of cataloguing sex differences in molecular biology research and highlight genes, miRNAs, and pathways of interest that may be important for sexual differentiation in the mouse and possibly the human brain.

In biomedical research, understanding the differences between males and females is essential for understanding diseases that affect one sex more than the other. This study focused on gene expression and regulation differences between male and female mouse brains during development. We found that many microRNAs, small molecules that play a role in development were expressed differently between male and female brains. These differences could be important in understanding why males and females develop differently, particularly regarding neurodevelopmental disorders like ADHD, schizophrenia, and autism. We also found that some microRNAs that differed between males and females were located near genes associated with these disorders. Overall, the study highlights the importance of understanding sex differences in molecular biology research and provides insights into potential genes and pathways of interest for further study.

crabs-A software program to generate curated reference databases for metabarcoding sequencing data.

The measurement of biodiversity is an integral aspect of life science research. With the establishment of second- and third-generation sequencing technologies, an increasing amount of metabarcoding data is being generated as we seek to describe the extent and patterns of biodiversity in multiple contexts. The reliability and accuracy of taxonomically assigning metabarcoding sequencing data have been shown to be critically influenced by the quality and completeness of reference databases. Custom, curated, eukaryotic reference databases, however, are scarce, as are the software programs for generating them. Here, we present crabs (Creating Reference databases for Amplicon-Based Sequencing), a software package to create custom reference databases for metabarcoding studies. crabs includes tools to download sequences from multiple online repositories (i.e., NCBI, BOLD, EMBL, MitoFish), retrieve amplicon regions through in silico PCR analysis and pairwise global alignments, curate the database through multiple filtering parameters (e.g., dereplication, sequence length, sequence quality, unresolved taxonomy, inclusion/exclusion filter), export the reference database in multiple formats for immediate use in taxonomy assignment software, and investigate the reference database through implemented visualizations for diversity, primer efficiency, reference sequence length, database completeness and taxonomic resolution. crabs is a versatile tool for generating curated reference databases of user-specified genetic markers to aid taxonomy assignment from metabarcoding sequencing data. crabs can be installed via docker and is available for download as a conda package and via GitHub (https://github.com/gjeunen/reference_database_creator).

Epitype-inducing temperatures drive DNA methylation changes during somatic embryogenesis in the long-lived gymnosperm Norway spruce.

An epigenetic memory of the temperature sum experienced during embryogenesis is part of the climatic adaptation strategy of the long-lived gymnosperm Norway spruce. This memory has a lasting effect on the timing of bud phenology and frost tolerance in the resulting epitype trees. The epigenetic memory is well characterized phenotypically and at the transcriptome level, but to what extent DNA methylation changes are involved have not previously been determined. To address this, we analyzed somatic epitype embryos of Norway spruce clones produced at contrasting epitype-inducing conditions (18 and 28°C). We screened for differential DNA methylation in 2744 genes related mainly to the epigenetic machinery, circadian clock, and phenology. Of these genes, 68% displayed differential DNA methylation patterns between contrasting epitype embryos in at least one methylation context (CpG, CHG, CHH). Several genes related to the epigenetic machinery (e.g., DNA methyltransferases, ARGONAUTE) and the control of bud phenology (FTL genes) were differentially methylated. This indicates that the epitype-inducing temperature conditions induce an epigenetic memory involving specific DNA methylation changes in Norway spruce.

Assessing the utility of marine filter feeders for environmental DNA (eDNA) biodiversity monitoring.

Aquatic environmental DNA (eDNA) surveys are transforming how marine ecosystems are monitored. The time-consuming preprocessing step of active filtration, however, remains a bottleneck. Hence, new approaches that eliminate the need for active filtration are required. Filter-feeding invertebrates have been proven to collect eDNA, but side-by-side comparative studies to investigate the similarity between aquatic and filter-feeder eDNA signals are essential. Here, we investigated the differences among four eDNA sources (water; bivalve gill-tissue; sponges; and ethanol in which filter-feeding organisms were stored) along a vertically stratified transect in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand using three metabarcoding primer sets targeting fish and vertebrates. Combined, eDNA sources detected 59 vertebrates, while concurrent diver surveys observed eight fish species. There were no significant differences in alpha and beta diversity between water and sponge eDNA and both sources were highly correlated. Vertebrate eDNA was successfully extracted from the ethanol in which sponges were stored, although a reduced number of species were detected. Bivalve gill-tissue dissections, on the other hand, failed to reliably detect eDNA. Overall, our results show that vertebrate eDNA signals obtained from water samples and marine sponges are highly concordant. The strong similarity in eDNA signals demonstrates the potential of marine sponges as an additional tool for eDNA-based marine biodiversity surveys, by enabling the incorporation of larger sample numbers in eDNA surveys, reducing plastic waste, simplifying sample collection, and as a cost-efficient alternative. However, we note the importance to not detrimentally impact marine communities by, for example, nonlethal subsampling, specimen cloning, or using bycatch specimens.

The prevention of leprosy related disability as an integral component of the government health delivery programme in Myanmar.

This paper presents a record of a focus group discussion that took place in Nyapyitaw, Myanmar in December 2010. Those contributing to the focus group discussion were senior post holders in the National Leprosy Control Programme (NLCP), Myanmar. The Myanmar programme had been targeted for further enquiry after it became apparent, through an earlier survey of national programme managers and consultants, that the programme had been relatively successful in the measures taken to facilitate the integration of POD into the government health delivery programme. The experience gained by the NLCP, Myanmar was recorded and is offered here as an example of how POD can be successfully developed by a government leprosy control programme to become integral to general health delivery.

Report of the Stigma Research Workshop for the development of scientific consensus papers and field guidelines on health-related stigma, held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands from 11-14 october 2010.

Summary In concurrence with the broad body of literature published on health-related stigma, there is a need for practical field guidance to contribute to the fight against leprosy-related stigma and discrimination. To this end, much can be gained by considering the accumulated knowledge and learned from experience with different stigmatising conditions; primarily HIV/AIDS, disability, tuberculosis, and mental health. Therefore a Stigma Research Workshop was organised from 11-14 October in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The primary aim of the workshop was to produce scientific papers and field guidelines that could be used to target actions against health-related stigma and discrimination. Keynote presentations were offered by scientists and professionals from different health domains who shared their knowledge, experiences and research findings regarding health-related stigma. Group work was subsequently conducted to work towards agreed outputs on four different themes: i.e. research priorities, measurement, interventions, and counselling. The spectrum of expertise present enabled an interdisciplinary and inter-profession sharing of knowledge and practices. This resulted in the commencement of consensus papers and field guidelines related to the four themes. An evaluation by participants concluded that the workshop had been an informative and worthwhile activity that will strengthen the fight against stigma.

First mitochondrial genome of the Caucasian squirrel Sciurus anomalus (Rodentia, Sciuridae).

The Caucasian Squirrel, Sciurus anomalus, is the only representative of the Sciuridae family in the Eastern Mediterranean region. In this study, the mitochondrial genome of the Sciurus anomalus species was generated, and we investigate its phylogenetic position within the Sciuridae family. The generated mitogenome sequence is 16,234 bp. It is composed of a control region and a conserved set of 37 genes containing 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes and 2 rRNA genes.

First mitochondrial genome of the marbled polecat Vormela peregusna (Carnivora, Mustelidae).

The marbled polecat, Vormela peregusna, is one of the least studied species in the Mustelidae family, especially with regard to phylogeography and genetic diversity. In this study, we determined the mitochondrial genome sequence of V. peregusna and investigated its position within the Mustelidae phylogeny. The generated mitogenome is 15,982 bp in length; it consists of 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes, 22 tRNA genes, and a control region.

Distribution and abundance of the introduced ectomycorrhizal fungus Amanita phalloides in North America.

Despite a growing awareness of the global reach of ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungal introductions, little is known about the fate of introduced EM fungi in novel ranges. Using herbarium specimens, species distribution models, and field collections of sporocarps, root tips and extramatrical mycelia, we assessed the distribution and abundance of the European species Amanita phalloides in North America. There are two distinct ranges of the fungus, one along the West Coast (California to British Columbia) and the second on the East Coast (Maryland to Maine). As predicted by a species distribution model, the West Coast range is larger. Amanita phalloides is more frequently found in native forests on the West Coast than on the East Coast. At Point Reyes Peninsula in California, A. phalloides dominates community sporocarp biomass, and is frequent as root tips. In individual soil cores at Point Reyes, root tips of A. phalloides make up 50% of total root tip biomass. Hyphae of A. phalloides are frequent, but make up only 2% of total hyphal biomass. The contrasting patterns of the distribution and abundance of A. phalloides on the East and West Coasts of North America may influence both its future spread and its impacts.