The tale of antibiotics beyond antimicrobials: Expanding horizons.

Antibiotics had proved to be a godsend for mankind since their discovery. They were once the magical solution to the vexing problem of infection-related deaths. German scientist Paul Ehrlich had termed salvarsan as the silver bullet to treatsyphilis.As time passed, the magic of newly discovered silver bullets got tarnished with raging antibiotic resistance among bacteria and associated side-effects. Still, antibiotics remain the primary line of treatment for bacterial infections. Our understanding of their chemical and biological activities has increased immensely with advancement in the research field. Non-antibacterial effects of antibiotics are studied extensively to optimise their safer, broad-range use. These non-antibacterial effects could be both useful and harmful to us. Various researchers across the globe including our lab are studying the direct/indirect effects and molecular mechanisms behind these non-antibacterial effects of antibiotics. So, it is interesting for us to sum up the available literature. In this review, we have briefed the possible reason behind the non-antibacterial effects of antibiotics, owing to the endosymbiotic origin of host mitochondria. We further discuss the physiological and immunomodulatory effects of antibiotics. We then extend the review to discuss molecular mechanisms behind the plausible use of antibiotics as anticancer agents.

Azithromycin alters Colony Stimulating Factor-1R (CSF-1R) expression and functional output of murine bone marrow-derived macrophages: A novel report.

Antibiotic treatment may lead to side effects that require mechanistic explanation. We investigated the effect of azithromycin (AZM) treatment on bone marrow-derived macrophage (Mφ) generation, their functional output, and the subsequent effect on bacterial clearance in a mouse model of S. flexneri infection. To our fascination, AZM increased PU.1, C/EBPß, CSF-1R/pCSF-1R expressions leading to M2-skewed in vitro BMDM generation. Altered Mφ-functions like- phagocytosis, oxidative stress generation, inflammasome-activation, cytokine release, and phenotype (pro-inflammatory-M1, anti-inflammatory-M2) even in the presence of infection were observed with AZM treatment. AZM increased CD206, egr2, arg1 (M2-marker) expression and activity while reducing CD68, inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) expression, and activity (M1-marker) in Mφs during infection. Pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-12, IL-1ß) were reduced and anti-inflammatory IL-10 release was augmented by AZM-treated-iMφs (aiMφs) along with decreased asc, nlrp3, aim2, nlrp1a, caspase1 expressions, and caspase3 activity signifying that aMφs/aiMφs were primed towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Interestingly, CSF-1R blockade increased NO, IL-12, TNF-α, IL-1ß, decreased TGF-ß release, and CD206 expression in aiMφs. T-cell co-stimulatory molecule cd40, cd86, and cd80 expressions were decreased in ai/aM1-Mφs and co-cultured CD8+, CD4+ T-cells had decreased proliferation, t-bet, IFN-γ, IL-17, IL-2 but increased foxp3, TGF-ß, IL-4 which were rescued with CSF-1R blockade. Thus AZM affected Mφ-functions and subsequent T-cell responses independent of its antibacterial actions. This was validated in the balb/c model of S. flexneri infection. We conclude that AZM skewed BMDM generation to anti-inflammatory M2-like via increased CSF-1R expression. This warrants further investigation of AZM-induced altered-Mφ-generation during intracellular infections.