Dipolar evaporation of reactive molecules to below the Fermi temperature.

The control of molecules is key to the investigation of quantum phases, in which rich degrees of freedom can be used to encode information and strong interactions can be precisely tuned1. Inelastic losses in molecular collisions2-5, however, have greatly hampered the engineering of low-entropy molecular systems6. So far, the only quantum degenerate gas of molecules has been created via association of two highly degenerate atomic gases7,8. Here we use an external electric field along with optical lattice confinement to create a two-dimensional Fermi gas of spin-polarized potassium-rubidium (KRb) polar molecules, in which elastic, tunable dipolar interactions dominate over all inelastic processes. Direct thermalization among the molecules in the trap leads to efficient dipolar evaporative cooling, yielding a rapid increase in phase-space density. At the onset of quantum degeneracy, we observe the effects of Fermi statistics on the thermodynamics of the molecular gas. These results demonstrate a general strategy for achieving quantum degeneracy in dipolar molecular gases in which strong, long-range and anisotropic dipolar interactions can drive the emergence of exotic many-body phases, such as interlayer pairing and p-wave superfluidity.

Generation and Implementation of Continuum Infrared Pulses for Broadband Detection in 2D IR Spectroscopy.

In recent years, new methods of generating continuum mid-infrared pulses through filamentation in gases have been developed for ultrafast time-resolved infrared vibrational spectroscopy. The generated infrared pulses can have thousands of wavenumbers of bandwidth, spanning the entire mid-IR region while retaining pulse length below 100 fs. This technology has had a significant impact on problems involving ultrafast structural dynamics in congested spectra with broad features, such as those found in aqueous solutions and molecules with strong intermolecular interactions. This study describes the recent advances in generating and characterizing these pulses and the practical aspects of implementing these sources for broadband detection in transient absorption and 2D IR spectroscopy.

Dynamical Generation of Spin Squeezing in Ultracold Dipolar Molecules.

We study a bulk fermionic dipolar molecular gas in the quantum degenerate regime confined in a two-dimensional geometry. Using two rotational states of the molecules, we encode a spin 1/2 degree of freedom. To describe the many-body spin dynamics of the molecules, we derive a long-range interacting XXZ model valid in the regime where motional degrees of freedom are frozen. Because of the spatially extended nature of the harmonic oscillator modes, the interactions in the spin model are very long ranged, and the system behaves close to the collective limit, resulting in robust dynamics and generation of entanglement in the form of spin squeezing even at finite temperature and in the presence of dephasing and chemical reactions. We discuss how the internal state structure can be exploited to realize time reversal and enhanced metrological sensing protocols.

Cryptic non-canonical splice site activation is part of the mechanism that abolishes multimer organization in the c.2269_2270del von Willebrand factor.

We report a new pathogenic mechanism in von Willebrand disease involving the use of a non-canonical splicing site. The proband, carrying the homozygous c.2269_2270del mutation previously classified as a type 3 mutation, showed severely reduced plasma and platelet von Willebrand factor antigen levels and functions, and no factor VIII binding capacity. A particular von Willebrand factor multimer pattern emerged in plasma, characterized by the presence of only two oligomers: the dimer and an unusually large band, with no intermediate components. There were von Willebrand factor multimers in platelets, but each band ran more slowly than the normal counterpart. No anti-von Willebrand factor antibodies were detectable. The proband was classified as having severe type 1 von Willebrand disease. Seeking the relationship between phenotype and genotype, we found the c.2269_2270del mutation associated with three different RNA: r.2269_2270del (RNAI), giving a truncated von Willebrand factor protein; r.[2269_2270del;2282_2288del] (RNAII), resulting from activation of a cryptic "AG" splicing site; and r.[2269_2270del;2281_2282insAG] (RNAIII), where the wild-type "AG" acceptor of exon 18 was retained due to the non-canonical 2279-2280 "CG" acceptor splicing site being used. The aberrant RNAII and RNAIII caused the alteration of the furin cleavage and binding sites, respectively, both resulting in a von Willebrand factor protein characterized by the persistence of von Willebrand factor propeptide, as confirmed by western blot analysis of the recombinant mutated von Willebrand factor molecules produced in vitro Taken together, these findings explain the residual von Willebrand factor synthesis, slower-running multimers, and absent factor VIII binding capacity. The apparently pure gene null mutation c.2269_2270del profoundly alters von Willebrand factor gene splicing, inducing a complex RNA expression pattern.

Thermalization and Sub-Poissonian Density Fluctuations in a Degenerate Molecular Fermi Gas.

We observe thermalization in the production of a degenerate Fermi gas of polar ^{40}K^{87}Rb molecules. By measuring the atom-dimer elastic scattering cross section near the Feshbach resonance, we show that Feshbach molecules rapidly reach thermal equilibrium with both parent atomic species. Equilibrium is essentially maintained through coherent transfer to the ground state. Sub-Poissonian density fluctuations in Feshbach and ground-state molecules are measured, giving an independent characterization of degeneracy and directly probing the molecular Fermi-Dirac distribution.

Factor H interferes with the adhesion of sickle red cells to vascular endothelium: a novel disease-modulating molecule.

Sickle cell disease is an autosomal recessive genetic red cell disorder with a worldwide distribution. Growing evidence suggests a possible involvement of complement activation in the severity of clinical complications of sickle cell disease. In this study we found activation of the alternative complement pathway with microvascular deposition of C5b-9 on skin biopsies from patients with sickle cell disease. There was also deposition of C3b on sickle red cell membranes, which is promoted locally by the exposure of phosphatidylserine. In addition, we showed for the first time a peculiar "stop-and-go" motion of sickle cell red blood cells on tumor factor-α-activated vascular endothelial surfaces. Using the C3b/iC3b binding plasma protein factor Has an inhibitor of C3b cell-cell interactions, we found that factor H and its domains 19-20 prevent the adhesion of sickle red cells to the endothelium, normalizing speed transition times of red cells. We documented that factor H acts by preventing the adhesion of sickle red cells to P-selectin and/or the Mac-1 receptor (CD11b/CD18), supporting the activation of the alternative pathway of complement as an additional mechanism in the pathogenesis of acute sickle cell related vaso-occlusive crises. Our data provide a rationale for further investigation of the potential contribution of factor H and other modulators of the alternative complement pathway with potential implications for the treatment of sickle cell disease.

Visualization of nitric oxide production by individual platelets during adhesion in flowing blood.

Nitric oxide (NO) exerts vasodilatatory, antiplatelet, antioxidant, and antiproliferative effects. Endothelium-derived NO has been shown to be of crucial importance in cardiovascular protection, whereas evidence that NO is synthesized by platelets and regulates platelet function is still controversial. By using a sensitive and specific fluorescent probe, 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein diacetate (DAF-FM), we visualized NO production in individual platelets undergoing adhesion on a collagen substrate under flow conditions. NO production, monitored in real time, was dependent on the shear rates applied, increasing with the raising of the shear rates. Furthermore, NO production increased in the presence of l-arginine (nitric-oxide synthase [NOS] substrate), and it decreased in the presence of L-NG-monomethyl arginine (L-NMMA) (NOS inhibitor) but not of D-NG-monomethyl arginine (D-NMMA) (L-NMMA-inactive enantiomer). Platelet deposition, measured with mepacrine-labeled platelets, was inversely related to NO production. A correlation was evident between Ca(++) elevation and NO production, suggesting that platelet NO formation is triggered by intracytoplasmic Ca(++) elevation. Simultaneous measurement of NO and Ca(++) indicated that NO production in individual platelets is preceded by Ca(++) elevations, with a lag phase of 33 ± 9.5 s. Our studies provide the first direct demonstration of platelet NO production triggered by the interaction with an activating surface under flow and suggest that intraplatelet Ca(++) elevation elicits the production of NO which, in turn, modulates thrombus size.

Programmable 3D silk bone marrow niche for platelet generation ex vivo and modeling of megakaryopoiesis pathologies.

We present a programmable bioengineered 3-dimensional silk-based bone marrow niche tissue system that successfully mimics the physiology of human bone marrow environment allowing us to manufacture functional human platelets ex vivo. Using stem/progenitor cells, megakaryocyte function and platelet generation were recorded in response to variations in extracellular matrix components, surface topography, stiffness, coculture with endothelial cells, and shear forces. Millions of human platelets were produced and showed to be functional based on multiple activation tests. Using adult hematopoietic progenitor cells our system demonstrated the ability to reproduce key steps of thrombopoiesis, including alterations observed in diseased states. A critical feature of the system is the use of natural silk protein biomaterial allowing us to leverage its biocompatibility, nonthrombogenic features, programmable mechanical properties, and surface binding of cytokines, extracellular matrix components, and endothelial-derived proteins. This in turn offers new opportunities for the study of blood component production ex vivo and provides a superior tissue system for the study of pathologic mechanisms of human platelet production.

Brief Report: Alternative Splicing of Extra Domain A (EIIIA) of Fibronectin Plays a Tissue-Specific Role in Hematopoietic Homeostasis.

Fibronectin (FN) is a major extracellular matrix protein implicated in cell adhesion and differentiation in the bone marrow (BM) environment. Alternative splicing of FN gene results in the generation of protein variants containing an additional EIIIA domain that sustains cell proliferation or differentiation during physiological or pathological tissue remodeling. To date its expression and role in adult hematopoiesis has not been explored. In our research, we demonstrate that during physiological hematopoiesis a small fraction of BM derived FN contains the EIIIA domain and that mice constitutively including (EIIIA(+/+) ) or excluding (EIIIA(-/-) ) the EIIIA exon present comparable levels of hematopoietic stem cells, myeloid and lymphoid progenitors within BM. Moreover, only minor alterations were detected in blood parameters and in hematopoietic frequencies of BM granulocytes/monocytes and B cells. As opposed to other tissues, unique compensatory mechanisms, such as increased FN accumulation and variable expression of the EIIIA receptors, Toll like receptor-4 and alpha9 integrin subunit, characterized the BM of these mice. Our data demonstrate that FN is a fundamental component of the hematopoietic tissue and that the EIIIA exon may play a key role in modulating hematopiesis in conditions of BM stress or diseases. Stem Cells 2016;34:2263-2268.

Interplay of Ion-Water and Water-Water Interactions within the Hydration Shells of Nitrate and Carbonate Directly Probed with 2D IR Spectroscopy.

The long-range influence of ions in solution on the water hydrogen-bond (H-bond) network remains a topic of vigorous debate. Recent spectroscopic and theoretical studies have, for the most part, reached the consensus that weakly coordinating ions only affect water molecules in the first hydration shell. Here, we apply ultrafast broadband two-dimensional infrared (2D IR) spectroscopy to aqueous nitrate and carbonate in neat H2O to study the solvation structure and dynamics of ions on opposite ends of the Hofmeister series. By exciting both the water OH stretches and ion stretches and probing the associated cross-peaks between them, we are afforded a comprehensive view into the complex nature of ion hydration. We show in aqueous nitrate that weak ion-water H-bonding leads to water-water interactions in the ion solvation shells dominating the dynamics. In contrast, the carbonate CO stretches show significant mixing with the water OH stretches due to strong ion-water H-bonding such that the water and ion modes are intimately correlated. Further, the excitonic nature of vibrations in neat H2O, which spans multiple water molecules, is an important factor in describing ion hydration. We attribute these complex dynamics to the likely presence of intermediate-range effects influenced by waters beyond the first solvation shell.

Anharmonic exciton dynamics and energy dissipation in liquid water from two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy.

Water's extended hydrogen-bond network results in rich and complex dynamics on the sub-picosecond time scale. In this paper, we present a comprehensive analysis of the two-dimensional infrared (2D IR) spectrum of O-H stretching vibrations in liquid H2O and their interactions with bending and intermolecular vibrations. By exploring the dependence of the spectrum on waiting time, temperature, and laser polarization, we refine our molecular picture of water's complex ultrafast dynamics. The spectral evolution following excitation of the O-H stretching resonance reveals vibrational dynamics on the 50-300 fs time scale that are dominated by intermolecular delocalization. These O-H stretch excitons are a result of the anharmonicity of the nuclear potential energy surface that arises from the hydrogen-bonding interaction. The extent of O-H stretching excitons is characterized through 2D depolarization measurements that show spectrally dependent delocalization in agreement with theoretical predictions. Furthermore, we show that these dynamics are insensitive to temperature, indicating that the exciton dynamics alone set the important time scales in the system. Finally, we study the evolution of the O-H stretching mode, which shows highly non-adiabatic dynamics suggestive of vibrational conical intersections. We argue that the so-called heating, commonly observed within ∼1 ps in nonlinear IR spectroscopy of water, is a nonequilibrium state better described by a kinetic temperature rather than a Boltzmann distribution. Our conclusions imply that the collective nature of water vibrations should be considered in describing aqueous solvation.

Higher and lower active circulating VWF levels: different facets of von Willebrand disease.

Most circulating von Willebrand factor (VWF) is normally inactive and incapable of binding platelets, but numerous disorders may modify the proportion of active VWF. We explored active VWF levels in patients with von Willebrand disease (VWD) whose VWF had a higher affinity for platelet glycoprotein (GP)Ib, but different susceptibilities to ADAMTS13 and multimer patterns (9 patients lacking large multimers, 10 with a normal pattern); 12 patients with VWF C2362F and R1819_C1948delinsS mutations, which make VWF resistant to ADAMTS13 were also studied. Type 2B patients with abnormal or normal multimers had significantly more active VWF (3·33 ± 1·6 and 3·74 ± 0·74, respectively; normal 0·99 ± 0·23). The type of VWF mutation influenced VWF activation: V1316M was associated with the highest levels in patients with abnormal multimers, and R1341W in those with normal multimers. Pregnancy induced gradually rising active VWF levels and declining platelet counts in one type 2B VWD patient without large multimers. Active VWF levels dropped significantly in patients homozygous for the C2362F mutation or heterozygous for R1819_C1948delinsS mutations (0·2 ± 0·03 and 0·23 ± 0·1, respectively), and less in cases heterozygous for the VWF C2362F mutation (0·55 ± 0·17). We demonstrate that VWF may be more or less activated, with or without any direct involvement of the A1 domain, and regardless of ADAMTS13.

The importance of calcium in the regulation of megakaryocyte function.

Platelet release by megakaryocytes is regulated by a concert of environmental and autocrine factors. We previously showed that constitutively released adenosine diphosphate by human megakaryocytes leads to platelet production. Here we show that adenosine diphosphate elicits, in human megakaryocytes, an increase in cytosolic calcium concentration, followed by a plateau, which is lowered in the absence of extracellular calcium, suggesting the involvement of Store-Operated Calcium Entry. Indeed, we demonstrate that megakaryocytes express the major candidates to mediate Store-Operated Calcium Entry, stromal interaction molecule 1, Orai1 and canonical transient receptor potential 1, which are activated upon either pharmacological or physiological depletion of the intracellular calcium pool. This mechanism is inhibited by phospholipase C or inositol-3-phosphate receptor inhibitors and by a specific calcium entry blocker. Studies on megakaryocyte behavior, on extracellular matrix proteins that support proplatelet extension, show that calcium mobilization from intracellular stores activates signaling cascades that trigger megakaryocyte adhesion and proplatelet formation, and promotes extracellular calcium entry which is primarily involved in the regulation of the contractile force responsible for megakaryocyte motility. These findings provide the first evidence that both calcium mobilization from intracellular stores and extracellular calcium entry specifically regulate human megakaryocyte functions.

Direct observation of intermolecular interactions mediated by hydrogen bonding.

Although intermolecular interactions are ubiquitous in physicochemical phenomena, their dynamics have proven difficult to observe directly, and most experiments rely on indirect measurements. Using broadband two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy (2DIR), we have measured the influence of hydrogen bonding on the intermolecular vibrational coupling between dimerized N-methylacetamide molecules. In addition to strong intramolecular coupling between N-H and C=O oscillators, cross-peaks in the broadband 2DIR spectrum appearing upon dimerization reveal strong intermolecular coupling that changes the character of the vibrations. In addition, dimerization changes the effects of intramolecular coupling, resulting in Fermi resonances between high and low-frequency modes. These results illustrate how hydrogen bonding influences the interplay of inter- and intramolecular vibrations, giving rise to correlated nuclear motions and significant changes in the vibrational structure of the amide group. These observations have direct impact on modeling and interpreting the IR spectra of proteins. In addition, they illustrate a general approach to direct molecular characterization of intermolecular interactions.

Collective vibrations of water-solvated hydroxide ions investigated with broadband 2DIR spectroscopy.

The infrared spectra of aqueous solutions of NaOH and other strong bases exhibit a broad continuum absorption for frequencies between 800 and 3500 cm(-1), which is attributed to the strong interactions of the OH(-) ion with its solvating water molecules. To provide molecular insight into the origin of the broad continuum absorption feature, we have performed ultrafast transient absorption and 2DIR experiments on aqueous NaOH by exciting the O-H stretch vibrations and probing the response from 1350 to 3800 cm(-1) using a newly developed sub-70 fs broadband mid-infrared source. These experiments, in conjunction with harmonic vibrational analysis of OH(-)(H2O)n (n = 17) clusters, reveal that O-H stretch vibrations of aqueous hydroxides arise from coupled vibrations of multiple water molecules solvating the ion. We classify the vibrations of the hydroxide complex by symmetry defined by the relative phase of vibrations of the O-H bonds hydrogen bonded to the ion. Although broad and overlapping spectral features are observed for 3- and 4-coordinate ion complexes, we find a resolvable splitting between asymmetric and symmetric stretch vibrations, and assign the 2850 cm(-1) peak infrared spectra of aqueous hydroxides to asymmetric stretch vibrations.

Lack of COL6/collagen VI causes megakaryocyte dysfunction by impairing autophagy and inducing apoptosis.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress is an emerging significant player in the molecular pathology of connective tissue disorders. In response to endoplasmic reticulum stress, cells can upregulate macroautophagy/autophagy, a fundamental cellular homeostatic process used by cells to degrade and recycle proteins or remove damaged organelles. In these scenarios, autophagy activation can support cell survival. Here we demonstrated by in vitro and in vivo approaches that megakaryocytes derived from col6a1-/- (collagen, type VI, alpha 1) null mice display increased intracellular retention of COL6 polypeptides, endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis. The unfolded protein response is activated in col6a1-/- megakaryocytes, as evidenced by the upregulation of molecular chaperones, by the increased splicing of Xbp1 mRNA and by the higher level of the pro-apoptotic regulator DDIT3/CHOP. Despite the endoplasmic reticulum stress, basal autophagy is impaired in col6a1-/- megakaryocytes, which show lower BECN1 levels and reduced autophagosome maturation. Starvation and rapamycin treatment rescue the autophagic flux in col6a1-/- megakaryocytes, leading to a decrease in intracellular COL6 polypeptide retention, endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis. Furthermore, megakaryocytes cultured from peripheral blood hematopoietic progenitors of patients affected by Bethlem myopathy and Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy, two COL6-related disorders, displayed increased apoptosis, endoplasmic reticulum stress and impaired autophagy. These data demonstrate that genetic disorders of collagens, endoplasmic reticulum stress and autophagy regulation in megakaryocytes may be interrelated.Abbreviations: 7-AAD: 7-amino-actinomycin D; ATF: activating transcriptional factor; BAX: BCL2 associated X protein; BCL2: B cell leukemia/lymphoma 2; BCL2L1/Bcl-xL: BCL2-like 1; BM: bone marrow; COL6: collagen, type VI; col6a1-/-: mice that are null for Col6a1; DDIT3/CHOP/GADD153: DNA-damage inducible transcript 3; EGFP: enhanced green fluorescent protein; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; reticulophagy: endoplasmic reticulum-selective autophagy; HSPA5/Bip: heat shock protein 5; HSP90B1/GRP94: heat shock protein 90, beta (Grp94), member 1; LAMP2: lysosomal associated membrane protein 2; MAP1LC3B/LC3B: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; Mk: megakaryocytes; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NIMV: noninvasive mechanical ventilation; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PPP1R15A/GADD34: protein phosphatase 1, regulatory subunit 15A; RT-qPCR: reverse transcription-quantitative real-time PCR; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SERPINH1/HSP47: serine (or cysteine) peptidase inhibitor, clade H, member 1; sh-RNA: short hairpin RNA; SOCE: store operated calcium entry; UCMD: Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy; UPR: unfolded protein response; WIPI2: WD repeat domain, phosphoinositide-interacting 2; WT: wild type; XBP1: X-box binding protein 1.

Abnormal VWF modifies megakaryocytopoiesis: studies of platelets and megakaryocyte cultures from patients with von Willebrand disease type 2B.

von Willebrand factor (VWF) is an essential mediator of platelet adhesion to the vessel wall, but little is known about its role in megakaryocytopoiesis. VWF and its platelet receptor, glycoprotein Ibalpha (GPIbalpha), are both expressed during megakaryocyte (MK) maturation. This study was designed to evaluate whether the enhanced VWF-GPIbalpha interactions typical of patients with von Willebrand disease type 2B (VWD2B) modify platelet production. Platelets from 9 patients with VWD2B with 7 different gain-of-function mutations were examined by electron microscopy (EM) and immunofluorescence labeling. For the patients with VWD2B, EM characteristically showed variable numbers of structurally abnormal giant platelets, sometimes in agglutinates. Cultures of MKs from controls performed with or without purified VWF confirmed a positive influence of VWF on platelet production with specific inhibition by an antibody blocking VWF binding to GPIbalpha. VWD2B MK cultures examined by EM showed a disorganized demarcation membrane system and abnormal granule distribution. They produced platelets with structural abnormalities typical of VWD2B. Confocal examination of MK revealed limited extension of pseudopods with few large proplatelets. These results confirm that megakaryocytopoiesis is modified by the enhanced VWF-GPIbalpha interactions. These data obtained for controls and patients with VWD2B suggest a novel regulatory role of VWF-GPIbalpha interactions in platelet production.

A phenomenological approach to modeling chemical dynamics in nonlinear and two-dimensional spectroscopy.

We present an approach for calculating nonlinear spectroscopic observables, which overcomes the approximations inherent to current phenomenological models without requiring the computational cost of performing molecular dynamics simulations. The trajectory mapping method uses the semi-classical approximation to linear and nonlinear response functions, and calculates spectra from trajectories of the system's transition frequencies and transition dipole moments. It rests on identifying dynamical variables important to the problem, treating the dynamics of these variables stochastically, and then generating correlated trajectories of spectroscopic quantities by mapping from the dynamical variables. This approach allows one to describe non-Gaussian dynamics, correlated dynamics between variables of the system, and nonlinear relationships between spectroscopic variables of the system and the bath such as non-Condon effects. We illustrate the approach by applying it to three examples that are often not adequately treated by existing analytical models--the non-Condon effect in the nonlinear infrared spectra of water, non-Gaussian dynamics inherent to strongly hydrogen bonded systems, and chemical exchange processes in barrier crossing reactions. The methods described are generally applicable to nonlinear spectroscopy throughout the optical, infrared and terahertz regions.

The Lesson Learned from the New c.2547-1G > T Mutation Combined with p.R854Q: When a Type 2N Mutation Reveals a Quantitative von Willebrand Factor Defect.

Type 2N is a rare von Willebrand disease (VWD) variant involving an impairment in the factor VIII (FVIII) carrier function of von Willebrand factor (VWF). It has a phenotype that mimics hemophilia A, and FVIII binding to VWF (VWF:FVIIIB) is tested to differentiate between the two disorders. Type 2N VWF defects may also be associated with quantitative VWF mutations (type 2N/type 1), further complicating the identification of cases. We report on a new quantitative VWF mutation (c.2547-1G > T) revealed by a p.R854Q type 2N mutation acting as homozygous despite being carried as a heterozygous defect. The proband had near-normal VWF levels (initially ruling out a defective VWF synthesis) and slightly reduced FVIII levels, while a VWF:FVIIIB test showed significantly reduced binding. Routine tests on type 2N homozygotes or heterozygotes combined with quantitative VWF defects in our cohort showed reduced FVIII levels in both groups, but it was only in the former that the FVIII/VWF antigen (VWF:Ag) ratio was always significantly reduced. The two tests are therefore not enough to identify all forms of type 2N VWD. While relatives of type 2N homozygotes usually have normal FVIII levels and FVIII/VWF:Ag ratios, relatives of type 2N/type 1 may have high FVIII/VWF:Ag ratios, but their VWF:FVIIIB and/or VWF:FVIIIB/VWF:Ag ratios are always low. Measuring FVIII and VWF levels may therefore suggest type 2N VWD in patients carrying type 2N mutations alone, but not in type 2N combined with quantitative VWF defects. The VWF:FVIIIB test should consequently be included when exploring VWF function, whatever VWD patient's phenotype.