Sensory Dysfunction, Microbial Infections, and Host Responses in Alzheimer's Disease.

Sensory functions of organs of the head and neck allow humans to interact with the environment and establish social bonds. With aging, smell, taste, vision, and hearing decline. Evidence suggests that accelerated impairment in sensory abilities can reflect a shift from healthy to pathological aging, including the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurological disorders. While the drivers of early sensory alteration in AD are not elucidated, insults such as trauma and infections can affect sensory function. Herein, we review the involvement of the major head and neck sensory systems in AD, with emphasis on microbes exploiting sensory pathways to enter the brain (the "gateway" hypothesis) and the potential feedback loop by which sensory function may be impacted by central nervous system infection. We emphasize detection of sensory changes as first-line surveillance in senior adults to identify and remove potential insults, like microbial infections, that could precipitate brain pathology.

Trial of Pimavanserin in Dementia-Related Psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Patients with dementia due to neurodegenerative disease can have dementia-related psychosis. The effects of the oral 5-HT2A inverse agonist and antagonist pimavanserin on psychosis related to various causes of dementia are not clear. METHODS: We conducted a phase 3, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled discontinuation trial involving patients with psychosis related to Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease dementia, dementia with Lewy bodies, frontotemporal dementia, or vascular dementia. Patients received open-label pimavanserin for 12 weeks. Those who had a reduction from baseline of at least 30% in the score on the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms-Hallucinations and Delusions (SAPS-H+D, with higher scores indicating greater psychosis) and a Clinical Global Impression-Improvement (CGI-I) score of 1 (very much improved) or 2 (much improved) at weeks 8 and 12 were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to continue receiving pimavanserin or to receive placebo for up to 26 weeks. The primary end point, assessed in a time-to-event analysis, was a relapse of psychosis as defined by any of the following: an increase of at least 30% in the SAPS-H+D score and a CGI-I score of 6 (much worse) or 7 (very much worse), hospitalization for dementia-related psychosis, stopping of the trial regimen or withdrawal from the trial for lack of efficacy, or use of antipsychotic agents for dementia-related psychosis. RESULTS: Of the 392 patients in the open-label phase, 41 were withdrawn for administrative reasons because the trial was stopped for efficacy; of the remaining 351 patients, 217 (61.8%) had a sustained response, of whom 105 were assigned to receive pimavanserin and 112 to receive placebo. A relapse occurred in 12 of 95 patients (13%) in the pimavanserin group and in 28 of 99 (28%) in the placebo group (hazard ratio, 0.35; 95% confidence interval, 0.17 to 0.73; P = 0.005). During the double-blind phase, adverse events occurred in 43 of 105 patients (41.0%) in the pimavanserin group and in 41 of 112 (36.6%) in the placebo group. Headache, constipation, urinary tract infection, and asymptomatic QT prolongation occurred with pimavanserin. CONCLUSIONS: In a trial that was stopped early for efficacy, patients with dementia-related psychosis who had a response to pimavanserin had a lower risk of relapse with continuation of the drug than with discontinuation. Longer and larger trials are required to determine the effects of pimavanserin in dementia-related psychosis. (Funded by Acadia Pharmaceuticals; HARMONY ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03325556.).

Comparison of brief olfactory and cognitive assessments to neuroimaging biomarkers in the prediction of cognitive decline and dementia in the MCSA cohort.

INTRODUCTION: We evaluated impaired odor identification and global cognition as simple, cost-effective alternatives to neuroimaging biomarkers to predict cognitive decline and dementia in the Mayo Clinic Study of Aging. METHODS: Six hundred forty-seven participants (mean 8.1, standard deviation 3.4 years' follow-up) had the following baseline procedures: modified Blessed Information Memory Concentration Test (BIMCT), 12-item Brief Smell Identification Test (BSIT), structural brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging with 11C-Pittsburgh compound B (11C-PiB) and fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG; subset). RESULTS: Cognitive decline developed in 102 participants and dementia in 34 participants. In survival analyses, PiB PET showed robust prediction for cognitive decline. Impaired BSIT, impaired BIMCT, MRI, and FDG measures were also significant predictors. The combination of demographics + BSIT + BIMCT showed strong predictive utility (C-index 0.81), similar to demographics + PiB PET (C-index 0.80). Similar but stronger results were obtained for prediction of dementia. DISCUSSION: Impairment in both odor identification test and global cognition was comparable to PiB PET for predicting cognitive decline and dementia. HIGHLIGHTS: In 647 participants in the population-based Mayo Clinic Study of Aging, several clinical markers and biomarkers each predicted cognitive decline or dementia during an average 8 years of follow-up. The combination of the demographic variables of age, sex, and education with a brief odor identification test (BSIT) and a global cognitive test (Blessed Information Memory Concentration Test) showed strong predictive utility (C-index 0.81) for cognitive decline that was similar to the demographic variables combined with Pittsburgh Compound B amyloid imaging (C-index 0.80). Combining a brief odor identification test with a brief cognitive test needs consideration as a simple, cost-effective option in the clinical assessment of individuals at risk of cognitive decline and dementia, as well as a potential tool to identify individuals who may benefit from disease-modifying treatments and to screen participants for prevention trials.

Sleep-wake behavior, perceived fatigability, and cognitive reserve in older adults.

INTRODUCTION: The effects of sleep-wake behavior on perceived fatigability and cognitive abilities when performing daily activities have not been investigated across levels of cognitive reserve (CR). METHODS: CR Index Questionnaire (CRIq) data were collected and subjected to moderated mediation analysis. RESULTS: In amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI; n = 41), CR moderated sleep-related impairments (SRIs), and fatigability at low CR (CRIq < 105.8, p = 0.004) and mean CR (CRIq = 126.9, p = 0.03) but not high CR (CRIq > 145.9, p = 0.65) levels. SRI affected cognitive abilities mediated by fatigability at low CR (p < 0.001) and mean CR (p = 0.003) levels. In healthy controls (n = 13), SRI in fatigability did not alter cognitive abilities across CR levels; controls had higher leisure scores than patients with aMCI (p = 0.003, effect size = 0.93). DISCUSSION: SRI can amplify impaired cognitive abilities through exacerbation of fatigability in patients with aMCI with below-mean CR. Therefore, improving sleep-wake regulation and leisure activities may protect against fatigability and cognitive decline. HIGHLIGHTS: Clinical fatigue and fatigability cannot be alleviated by rest. Clinical fatigability disrupts daily activities during preclinical Alzheimer's. High cognitive reserve mitigates sleep-wake disturbance effects. High cognitive reserve attenuates clinical fatigability effects on daily functioning. Untreated obstructive sleep apnea potentiates Alzheimer's pathology in the brain.

Novel measures of cognition and function for the AD spectrum in the Novel Measures for Alzheimer's Disease Prevention Trials (NoMAD) project: Psychometric properties, convergent validation, and contrasts with established measures.

INTRODUCTION: This study derived composite scores for two novel cognitive measures, the No Practice Effect (NPE) battery and the Miami Computerized Functional Skills Assessment and Training system for use in early-stage Alzheimer's disease (AD) clinical trials. Their psychometric properties and associations with AD risk markers were compared to those of well-established measures. METHODS: For 291 older adults with healthy cognition or early mild cognitive impairment, Exploratory factor analyses were used to identify the factor structure of the NPE. Factor and total scores were examined for their psychometric properties and associations with AD risk biomarkers. RESULTS: Composite scores from the novel cognitive and functional measures demonstrated better psychometric properties (distribution and test-retest reliability) and stronger associations with AD-related demographic, genetic, and brain risk markers than well-established measures, DISCUSSION: These novel measures have potential for use as primary cognitive and functional outcomes in early-stage AD clinical trials. HIGHLIGHTS: Well-established cognitive tests may not accurately detect subtle cognitive changes. No Practice Effect (NPE) and Computerized Functional Skills Assessment and Training are novel measures designed to have improved psychometric properties. NPE had Executive Function, Cognitive Control/Speed, and Episodic Memory domains. Novel measures had better psychometric properties compared to established measures. Significant associations with Alzheimer's disease biomarkers were found with novel measures.

Comparison of relative change with effect size metrics in Alzheimer's disease clinical trials.

BACKGROUND: Per cent slowing of decline is frequently used as a metric of outcome in Alzheimer's disease (AD) clinical trials, but it may be misleading. Our objective was to determine whether per cent slowing of decline or Cohen's d is the more valid and informative measure of efficacy. METHODS: Outcome measures of interest were per cent slowing of decline; Cohen's d effect size and number-needed-to-treat (NNT). Data from a graphic were used to model the inter-relationships among Cohen's d, placebo decline in raw score units and per cent slowing of decline with active treatment. NNTs were computed based on different magnitudes of d. Last, we tabulated recent AD anti-amyloid clinical trials that reported per cent slowing and for which we computed their respective d's and NNTs. RESULTS: We demonstrated that d and per cent slowing were potentially independent. While per cent slowing of decline was dependent on placebo decline and did not include variance in its computation, d was dependent on both group mean difference and pooled SD. We next showed that d was a critical determinant of NNT, such that NNT was uniformly smaller when d was larger. In recent AD associated trials including those focused on anti-amyloid biologics, d's were below 0.23 and thus considered small, while per cent slowing was in the 22-29% range and NNTs ranged from 14 to 18. CONCLUSIONS: Standardised effect size is a more meaningful outcome than per cent slowing of decline because it determines group overlap, which can directly influence NNT computations, and yield information on the likelihood of minimum clinically important differences. In AD, greater use of effect sizes, NNTs, rather than relative per cent slowing, will improve the ability to interpret clinical trial results and evaluate the clinical meaningfulness of statistically significant results.

Effects of lithium on serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Alzheimer's patients with agitation.

BACKGROUND: There is ample evidence in animal models that lithium increases Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) with supporting evidence in human studies. Little is known, however, about the effects of lithium on BDNF in Alzheimer's Dementia (AD). In one study of patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment, serum BDNF increased after treatment with lithium. These patients also showed mild improvement in cognitive function. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate low-dose lithium treatment of agitation in Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHOD: We measured levels of BDNF in patients treated with lithium prior to and after a 12-week randomized placebo-controlled trial. RESULTS: BDNF levels did not change significantly and were not associated with improvement in overall neuropsychiatric symptoms or in cognitive function. CONCLUSIONS: More research is needed to understand the potential effects of lithium on BDNF in AD including whether its use might be dependent on the stage of cognitive decline and dementia.

Effects of age on the relationship between sleep quality and cognitive performance: Findings from the Human Connectome Project-Aging cohort.

BACKGROUND: The association between sleep quality and cognition is widely established, but the role of aging in this relationship is largely unknown. OBJECTIVE: To examine how age impacts the sleep-cognition relationship and determine whether there are sensitive ranges when the relationship between sleep and cognition is modified. This investigation could help identify individuals at risk for sleep-related cognitive impairment. SUBJECTS: Sample included 711 individuals (ages 36.00-89.8359.66 ± 14.9155.7 % female) from the Human Connectome Project-Aging (HCP-A). METHODS: The association between sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, PSQI) and cognition (Crystallized Cognition Composite and Fluid Cognition Composite from the NIH Toolbox, the Trail Making Test, TMT, and the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, RAVLT) was measured using linear regression models, with sex, race, use of sleep medication, hypertension, and years of education as covariates. The interaction between sleep and age on cognition was tested using the moderation analysis, with age as both continuous linear and nonlinear (quadratic) terms. RESULTS: There was a significant interaction term between the PSQI and nonlinear age term (age2) on TMT-B (p = 0.02) and NIH Toolbox crystallized cognition (p = 0.02), indicating that poor sleep quality was associated with worse performance on these measures (sensitive age ranges 50-75 years for TMT-B and 66-70 years for crystallized cognition). CONCLUSIONS: The sleep-cognition relationship may be modified by age. Individuals in the middle age to early older adulthood age band may be most vulnerable to sleep-related cognitive impairment.

Unexpected lucidity in dementia: application of qualitative methods to develop an informant-reported lucidity measure.

OBJECTIVES: Unexpected lucidity is a phenomenon of scientific, clinical, and psychological relevance to health professionals, to those who experience it, and their relatives. This paper describes qualitative methods used to develop an informant-based measure of lucidity episodes. METHODS: The approach was refinement of the operationalization of the construct; review of seminal items, modification, and purification; and confirmation of the feasibility of reporting methodology. Modified focus groups were conducted with 20 staff and 10 family members using a web-based survey. Themes included reaction when hearing the term; words that come to mind; description of and first reaction to referenced or observed 'lucidity' events. Semi-structured cognitive interviews were conducted with 10 health professionals working with older adults with cognitive impairment. Data were extracted from Qualtrics or Microsoft 365 Word® for analysis using NVivo. RESULTS: Conceptual issues, as well as issues regarding comprehension, interpretation, clarity, semantics, and standardization of definitions derived from an external advisory board, focus groups and cognitive interviews informed items' modification, and resulted in the final lucidity measure. CONCLUSIONS: An obstacle to understanding the mechanisms and estimating the prevalence of lucid events among individuals with dementia and other neurological conditions is the scarcity of reliable and valid measures. The substantive and varied data gathered from multiple methods including the collaborative work of an External Advisory Board, modified focus groups with staff and family caregivers, and structured cognitive interviews with health professionals were central in creating the revised version of the lucidity measure.

Vigorous, regular physical exercise may slow disease progression in Alzheimer's disease.

INTRODUCTION: Mild to moderate exercise may decrease Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk, but the effects of vigorous, regular physical exercise remain unclear. METHODS: Two patients with initial diagnoses of amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) demonstrated positive AD biomarkers throughout 16 and 8 years of follow-up, with final diagnoses of mild AD and amnestic MCI, respectively. RESULTS: Patient 1 was diagnosed with amnestic MCI at age 64. Neuropsychological testing, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography (FDG-PET), amyloid imaging PET, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers during follow-ups remained consistent with AD. By age 80, progression was minimal with Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) 26 of 30. Patient 2 was diagnosed with amnestic MCI at age 72. Neuropsychological testing, MRI, FDG-PET, and amyloid imaging PET during follow-ups remained consistent with AD. At age 80, MoCA was 27 of 30 with no clinical progression. Both patients regularly performed vigorous, regular exercise that increased after retirement/work reduction. DISCUSSION: Vigorous, regular exercise may slow disease progression in biomarker-positive amnestic MCI and mild AD.

Reports About Paradoxical Lucidity from Health Care Professionals: A Pilot Study.

Although clinicians caring for persons at the end of life recognize the phenomenon of paradoxical/terminal lucidity, systematic evidence is scant. The current pilot study aimed to develop a structured interview instrument for health care professionals to report lucidity. A questionnaire measuring lucidity length, degree, content, coinciding circumstances, and time from episode to death was expanded to include time of day, expressive and receptive communication, and speech during the month prior to and during the event. Thirty-three interviews were conducted; 73% of participants reported ever witnessing paradoxical lucidity. Among 29 events reported, 31% lasted several days, 20.7% lasted 1 day, and 24.1% lasted <1 day. In 78.6% of events, the person engaged in unexpected activity; 22.2% died within 3 days, and 14.8% died within 3 months of the event. The phenomenological complexity of lucidity presents challenges to eliciting reports in a systematic fashion; however, staff respondents were able to report lucidity events and detailed descriptions of person-specific characteristics. [Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 49(1), 18-26.].

Novel approaches to measuring neurocognitive functions in Alzheimer's disease clinical trials.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: We comprehensively examined recent advancements in developing novel cognitive measures that could significantly enhance detection of outcome changes in Alzheimer's disease clinical trials. Previously established measures were largely limited in their ability to detect subtle cognitive declines in preclinical stages of Alzheimer's disease, particularly due to weak psychometric properties (including practice effects and ceiling effects) and requirement of in-person visits that impacted ascertainment. RECENT FINDINGS: We present novel cognitive measures that were designed to exhibit reduced practice effects and stronger correlations with Alzheimer's disease biomarkers. In addition, we summarized some recent efforts in developing remote testing measures protocols that are aimed to overcome the limitations and inconvenience of in-person testing, and digital phenotyping, which analyses subtle forms of digital behaviour indicative of cognitive phenotypes. We discuss each measure's prognostic accuracy and potential utility in Alzheimer's disease research while also commenting on their limitations. We also describe our study, the Development of Novel Measures for Alzheimer's Disease Prevention Trials (NoMAD), that employed a parallel group design in which novel measures and established measures are compared in a clinical trials armature. SUMMARY: Overall, we believe that these recent developments offer promising improvements in accurately detecting clinical and preclinical cognitive changes in the Alzheimer's disease spectrum; however, further validation of their psychometric properties and diagnostic accuracies is warranted before reliably implementing these novel measures in Alzheimer's disease clinical trials.

Relapse in Dementia-related Psychosis and Clinical Decisions.

Patients with dementia can experience hallucinations and delusions because of their underlying neurodegenerative condition, a syndrome known as dementia-related psychosis. Dementia-related psychosis contributes to morbidity and mortality among patients with dementia and increases the burden on caregivers and the health care system. With no pharmacological treatment currently approved in the United States for this condition, patients are often treated off-label with antipsychotics. Though typical and atypical antipsychotics have demonstrated variable to modest efficacy in dementia-related psychosis, serious safety concerns arise with their use. Accordingly, clinical and Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services guidelines recommend trying antipsychotics only when other therapies have failed and encourage treatment discontinuation of antipsychotics after 4 months to assess whether ongoing therapy is needed. Discontinuation of effective antipsychotic treatment, however, may increase the risk for relapse of symptoms and the associated morbidities that accompany relapse. A randomized medication withdrawal clinical trial design allows assessment of relapse risk after discontinuation and can provide initial information on longer-term safety of therapy for dementia-related psychosis. Given the substantial unmet need in this condition, new, well-tolerated therapies that offer acute and sustained reduction of symptoms while also preventing recurrence of symptoms of psychosis are critically needed.

Towards Defining the Neuroanatomical Basis of Late-Onset Psychiatric Symptoms.

Psychiatric symptoms, including changes in emotional processing, are a common feature of many neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy Bodies, frontotemporal dementia, and Huntington's disease. However, the neuroanatomical basis of emotional symptoms is not well defined; this stands in contrast to the relatively well-understood neuroanatomical correlates of cognitive and motor symptoms in neurodegenerative disorders. Furthermore, psychiatric diagnostic categories, as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), may have limited applicability in patients with late-onset psychiatric symptoms in the context of neurodegenerative disorders. In this clinical review, we suggest that early-onset and late-onset psychiatric symptoms have distinct etiologies, and that late-onset changes in emotional processing are likely underpinned by neurodegenerative disease. Furthermore, we suggest that an improved understanding of the neuroanatomical correlates of emotional changes in neurodegenerative disease may facilitate diagnosis and future treatment development. Finally, we propose a novel clinical approach, in a preliminary attempt to incorporate late-onset emotional symptoms alongside cognitive and motor symptoms into a clinical "algorithm," with a focus on the neuroanatomy implicated when particular combinations of emotional, cognitive, and motor features are present. We anticipate that this clinical approach will assist with the diagnosis of neurodegenerative disorders, and our proposed schema represents a move towards integrating neurologic and psychiatric classification systems.

Effects of restriction of activities and social isolation on risk of dementia in the community.

OBJECTIVE: Social isolation and emotional isolation, i.e. loneliness, have been associated with dementia or cognitive decline. In contrast, the relationship of restriction of physical and instrumental activities of daily living to cognitive decline and dementia has been less studied. DESIGN: We examined multiple quality of life (QoL) indicators, including isolation and restriction of activities, utilizing two validated scales in elders without dementia to determine their associations with cognitive decline and incident dementia that were followed longitudinally over 6 years. We comprehensively controlled for other symptom constellations, including depression and anergia. SETTING: A large multi-ethnic prospective study was conducted in northern Manhattan, NYC. PARTICIPANTS: An ethnically diverse sample of 855 non-demented individuals at baseline participated. MEASURES: The following QoL scales were utilized: Restriction, Anergia, Isolation, Loneliness, and Affective Suffering. RESULTS: Both Restriction (HR = 2.22, 95% CI [1.42, 3.47], P < .001) and Isolation (HR = 1.78, 95% CI [1.17, 2.70], P = 0.007) were associated with episodic memory and incident dementia, controlling for age, sex, and education. Loneliness and Affective Suffering (depression) were not associated with these outcomes (P's > .1) with both Restriction and Isolation in the same model for the prediction of dementia, only Restriction remained significant (HR = 1.97, 95% CI [1.24, 3.14], P = 0.004). In cross-lagged panel analyses, Restriction and Isolation had reciprocal influences (P's < .001), indicating that Restriction at the previous time point influenced current Isolation. Importantly, Restriction (but not Isolation) and Selective Reminding total recall memory demonstrated highly significant direct and reciprocal influences over time (P's < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Restriction and Isolation were associated with incident dementia. Restriction played a more prominent role in its impact on memory decline. The development of these impairments in QoL, particularly Restriction, may provide warning signs of future cognitive decline and dementia and provide multiple and novel avenues for therapeutic interventions with the goal of delaying the development of cognitive decline and dementia.

Associations of APOE e2 genotype with cerebrovascular pathology: a postmortem study of 1275 brains.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed the association of apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype with cerebrovascular disease (CVD) in a large neuropathological database maintained by the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center (NACC). Such a comprehensive investigation of APOE and CVD pathology has not heretofore been conducted. We focused on APOE e2, an established neuroprotective genetic variant against Alzheimer's disease. METHODS: To implement these objectives APOE associations in the NACC database of 1275 brains with 11 CVD pathologies, including old and recent infarcts, haemorrhages, cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) and arteriosclerosis, were examined. These pathologies were uniformly and semiquantitatively measured across 39 Alzheimer's Disease Center sites. We used χ2 statistics and ordinal regression to assess the significance of associations and Bonferroni corrected for multiple comparisons. RESULTS: Of the cases, 98 were e2/e3 or e2/e2 genotypes ('e2' carriers), 621 were e3 homozygotes ('e3' group), and 556 were e4/e3 (442) or e4/e4 (114) genotypes ('e4' group). Results indicated that the APOE e4 allele significantly increased risk for CAA. After stratification by CAA presence/absence, we found that in those cases in which CAA was present, APOE e2 significantly increased risk for gross haemorrhage. All other associations were negative. CONCLUSIONS: In this, the largest study of APOE e2 effects on pathologically verified CVD, e2 was not protective against any CVD pathology compared with e3 homozygotes, including CAA. Regarding the latter pathology, e4 was associated with increases in its severity. Furthermore, and perhaps unexpectedly, e2 significantly increased risk of acute/subacute gross haemorrhage in the presence of CAA. Thus, there were limits to e2 neuroprotection against amyloidosis, despite its known and large protective effects against diffuse and neuritic amyloid plaques compared with e3/e3 and e4 carriers in this very collection.

Intact global cognitive and olfactory ability predicts lack of transition to dementia.

INTRODUCTION: Odor identification deficits characterize Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. We examined if intact performance on brief cognitive and odor identification tests predicts lack of transition to dementia. METHODS: In an urban community, 1037 older adults without dementia completed the 40-item University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test, which includes the 12-item Brief Smell Identification Test (B-SIT). Data from 749 participants followed up for 4 years were analyzed. RESULTS: In covariate-adjusted survival analyses, impairment on the Blessed Orientation Memory Concentration Test and B-SIT each predicted dementia (n = 109), primarily Alzheimer's disease (n = 101). Among participants with intact olfactory (B-SIT ≥ 11/12 correct) and cognitive (Blessed Orientation Memory Concentration Test ≤ 5/28 incorrect) ability, 3.4% (4/117) transitioned to dementia during follow-up with no transitions in the 70-75 and 81-83 years age group quartiles. DISCUSSION: Odor identification testing adds value to global cognitive testing, and together can identify individuals who rarely transition to dementia, thereby avoiding unnecessary diagnostic investigation.

Long-Term Test-Retest Reliability of the UPSIT in Cognitively Intact Older Adults.

The objective of this study was to determine the long-term test-retest reliability of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT), and its individual items, in cognitively intact older adults. A community sample of older adults received a neuropsychological test battery, including the 12-item, 6-trial Selective Reminding Test (SRT). The UPSIT was administered at baseline and follow-up that occurred between 1 and 4 years after baseline. UPSIT scores of participants who were cognitively intact and did not decline cognitively were examined for test-retest reliability. In 92 older adults with mean age 77.6 years followed for 2.79 (standard deviation [SD] 0.69) years, mean UPSIT score declined from 30.29 (SD 5.83) to 27.80 (SD 5.50). In linear mixed models that adjusted for time, age, sex, and education, intraclass correlation coefficients for UPSIT were 0.65, SRT delayed recall 0.59, and SRT total immediate recall 0.49. Among 4 possible response combinations, the largest proportion of participants had correct responses at both visits for 35 out of 40 items. Consistency of item responses ranged from 50% to 90% across the 2 time points. The long-term test-retest reliability of the UPSIT was moderately strong without practice effects over long periods of time in older adults. These results provide indirect support to prior findings on odor identification impairment predicting cognitive decline and dementia, and suggest potential use of olfactory testing as a biomarker in prevention and treatment trials of cognitive enhancers.

Escitalopram for agitation in Alzheimer's disease (S-CitAD): Methods and design of an investigator-initiated, randomized, controlled, multicenter clinical trial.

INTRODUCTION: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disabling, common cause of dementia, and agitation is one of the most common and distressing symptoms for patients with AD. Escitalopram for agitation in Alzheimer's disease (S-CitAD) tests a novel, clinically derived therapeutic approach to treat agitation in patients with AD. METHODS: S-CitAD is a NIH-funded, investigator-initiated, randomized, multicenter clinical trial. Participants receive a structured psychosocial intervention (PSI) as standard of care. Participants without sufficient response to PSI are randomized to receive 15 mg escitalopram/day or a matching placebo in addition to PSI. Primary outcome is the Modified Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study - Clinical Global Impression of Change (mADCS-CGIC). DISCUSSION: S-CitAD will provide information about a practical, immediately available approach to treating agitation in patients with AD. S-CitAD may become a model of how to evaluate and predict treatment response in patients with AD and agitation as a neuropsychiatric symptom (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03108846).