Household cooking fuel and gallbladder cancer risk: a multi-centre case-control study in India.

PURPOSE: Gallbladder cancers (GBC), unique to certain geographical regions, are lethal digestive tract cancers, disproportionately affecting women, with limited information on risk factors. METHODS: We evaluated the association between household cooking fuel and GBC risk in a hospital-based case-control study conducted in the North-East and East Indian states of Assam and Bihar. We explored the potential mediation by diet, fire-vents, 'daily exposure duration' and parity (among women). We recruited biopsy-confirmed GBC (n = 214) men and women aged 30-69 years between 2019 and 2021, and controls frequency-matched by age, sex and region (n = 166). Information about cooking fuel, lifestyle, personal and family history, female reproductive factors, socio-demographics, and anthropometrics was collected. We tested associations using multivariable logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: All participants (73.4% women) were categorised based on predominant cooking fuel use. Group-1: LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) users in the previous 20 years and above without concurrent biomass use (26.15%); Group-2: LPG users in the previous 20 years and above with concurrent secondary biomass use (15.9%); Group-3: Biomass users for ≥ 20 years (57.95%). Compared to group-1, accounting for confounders, GBC risk was higher in group-2 [OR: 2.02; 95% CI: 1.00-4.07] and group-3 [OR: 2.01; 95% CI: 1.08-3.73] (p-trend:0.020). These associations strengthened among women that attenuated with high daily consumption of fruits-vegetables but not with fire-vents, 'daily exposure duration' or parity. CONCLUSION: Biomass burning was associated with a high-risk for GBC and should be considered as a modifiable risk factor for GBC. Clean cooking fuel can potentially mitigate, and a healthy diet can partially reduce the risk among women.

Is India's public health care system prepared for cervical cancer screening?: Evaluating facility readiness from the fourth round of the District Level Household and Facility Survey (DLHS-4).

India's cervical cancer screening program was launched in 2016. We evaluated baseline facility readiness using nationally representative data from the 2012-13 District Level Household and Facility Survey on 4 tiers of the public health care system - 18,367 sub-health centres (SHCs), 8540 primary health centres (PHCs), 4810 community health centres and 1540 district/sub-divisional hospitals. To evaluate facility readiness we used the Improving Data for Decision Making in Global Cervical Cancer Programmes toolkit on six domains - potential staffing, infrastructure, equipment and supplies, infection prevention, medicines and laboratory testing, and data management. Composite scores were created by summing responses within domains, standardizing scores across domains at each facility level, and averaging across districts/states. Overall, readiness scores were low for cervical cancer screening. At SHCs, the lowest scores were observed in 'infrastructure' (0.55) and 'infection prevention' (0.44), while PHCs had low 'potential staffing' scores (0.50) due to limited manpower to diagnose and treat (cryotherapy) potential cases. Scores were higher for tiers conducting diagnostic work-up and treatment/referral. The highest scores were in 'potential staffing' except for PHCs, while the lowest scores were in 'infection & prevention' and 'medicines and laboratory'. Goa and Maharashtra were consistently among the top 5 ranking states for readiness. Substantial heterogeneity in facility readiness for cervical cancer screening spans states and tiers of India's public healthcare system. Infrastructure and staffing are large barriers to screening at PHCs, which are crucial for referral of high-risk patients. Our results suggest focus areas in cervical cancer screening at the district level for policy makers.

A research agenda for non-communicable disease prevention and control in India.

BACKGROUND: Non-communicable diseases contribute to 62% of total deaths in India; of concern are the preventable premature deaths, which account for a staggering 48% of mortality. The objective of this study was to establish a consensus research agenda for non-communicable disease prevention and control that has the potential to impact polices, programmes and healthcare delivery in India. METHODS: To develop a non-communicable disease research agenda, we engaged our community collaborative board and scientific advisory group in a three-step process using two web-based surveys and one in-person meeting. First, the Delphi methodology was used to generate topics. Second, these ideas were deliberated upon during the in-person meeting, leading to the prioritisation of 23 research questions, which were subjected to Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threat analysis by the stakeholders using the Snow Card methodology with the scientific advisory group and community collaborative board. This step resulted in the identification of 15 low effort, high impact priority research questions for various health outcomes across research disciplines based on discussion with the larger group to reach consensus. Finally, the second web-based survey resulted in the identification of 15 key priority research questions by all stakeholders as being the most important using a linear mixed effect regression model. RESULTS: The final set of 15 priority research questions focused on interventions at the individual, community, systems and policy levels. Research questions focused on identifying interventions that strengthen healthcare systems and healthcare delivery, including models of care and improved access to non-communicable disease screening, diagnosis and treatment, determining the impact of government policies, assessing the effectiveness of prevention programmes (e.g. tobacco, environmental improvements), and testing research tools and resources to monitor non-communicable diseases at the population level. CONCLUSION: To produce the evidence base for selecting and implementing non-communicable disease programmes and policies in India, investments are needed. These investments should be guided by a national research agenda for the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases in India. Our findings could form the backbone of a national research agenda for non-communicable diseases in India that could be refined and then adopted by government agencies, the private sector, non-governmental and community-based organisations.

Establishing Baseline Cervical Cancer Screening Coverage - India, 2015-2016.

Cervical cancer is the second leading cause of new cancer cases and cancer-related deaths among women in India, with an estimated 96,922 new cases and 60,078 deaths each year.* Despite the availability of effective low-cost screening options in India, limited access to screening and treatment services, diagnosis at a later stage, and low investment in health care infrastructure all contribute to the high number of deaths (1). In 2016 the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare of India recommended cervical cancer screening using visual inspection with acetic acid every 5 years for women aged 30-65 years (per World Health Organization [WHO] guidelines) (2,3). To establish a baseline for cervical cancer screening coverage, survey data were analyzed to estimate the percentage of women aged 30-49 years who had ever been screened for cervical cancer (defined as ever having had a cervix examination). Cervical cancer screening was estimated using data from the Fourth National Family Health Survey† (NFHS-4), a nationally representative survey conducted at the district level during 2015-2016, which included 699,686 Indian women aged 15-49 years. Lifetime cervical cancer screening prevalence was low (29.8%) and varied by geographic region, ranging from 10.0% in the Northeast Region to 45.2% in the Western Region. Prevalence of screening was higher among women with higher levels of education and household wealth, those who had ever been married, and urban residents. This screening prevalence can be used as a baseline indicator for cervical cancer screening in India in accordance with the WHO Noncommunicable Diseases Global Monitoring Framework during state-based programmatic rollout and program evaluation (4).

Association between empirically derived dietary patterns with blood lipids, fasting blood glucose and blood pressure in adults - the India migration study.

BACKGROUND: Dietary patterns (DPs) in India are heterogenous. To date, data on association of indigenous DPs in India with risk factors of nutrition-related noncommunicable diseases (cardiovascular disease and diabetes), leading causes of premature death and disability, are limited. We aimed to evaluate the associations of empirically-derived DPs with blood lipids, fasting glucose and blood pressure levels in an adult Indian population recruited across four geographical regions of India. METHODS: We used cross-sectional data from the Indian Migration Study (2005-2007). Study participants included urban migrants, their rural siblings and urban residents and their urban siblings from Lucknow, Nagpur, Hyderabad and Bangalore (n = 7067, mean age 40.8 yrs). Information on diet (validated interviewer-administered, 184-item semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire), tobacco consumption, alcohol intake, physical activity, medical history, as well as anthropometric measurements were collected. Fasting-blood samples were collected for estimation of blood lipids and glucose. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify major DPs based on eigenvalue> 1 and component interpretability. Robust standard error multivariable linear regression models were used to investigate the association of DPs (tertiles) with total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides, fasting-blood glucose (FBG), systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) levels. RESULTS: Three major DPs were identified: 'cereal-savoury' (cooked grains, rice/rice-based dishes, snacks, condiments, soups, nuts), 'fruit-vegetable-sweets-snacks' (Western cereals, vegetables, fruit, fruit juices, cooked milk products, snacks, sugars, sweets) and 'animal food' (red meat, poultry, fish/seafood, eggs) patterns. High intake of the 'animal food' pattern was positively associated with levels of TC (ß = 0.10 mmol/L; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.17 mmol/L; p-trend = 0.013); LDL-C (ß = 0.07 mmol/L; 95% CI: 0.004, 0.14 mmol/L; p-trend = 0.041); HDL-C (ß = 0.02 mmol/L; 95% CI: 0.004, 0.04 mmol/L; p-trend = 0.016), FBG: (ß = 0.09 mmol/L; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.16 mmol/L; p-trend = 0.021) SBP (ß = 1.2 mm/Hg; 95% CI: 0.1, 2.3 mm/Hg; p-trend = 0.032); DBP: (ß = 0.9 mm/Hg; 95% CI: 0.2, 1.5 mm/Hg; p-trend = 0.013). The 'cereal-savoury' and 'fruit-vegetable-sweets-snacks' patterns showed no association with any parameter except for a positive association with diastolic blood pressure for high intake of 'fruits-vegetables-sweets-snacks' pattern. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate positive associations of the 'animal food' pattern with cardio-metabolic risk factors in India. Further longitudinal assessments of dietary patterns in India are required to validate the findings.

Chronic disease concordance within Indian households: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: The household is a potentially important but understudied unit of analysis and intervention in chronic disease research. We sought to estimate the association between living with someone with a chronic condition and one's own chronic condition status. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of population-based household- and individual-level data collected in 4 socioculturally and geographically diverse settings across rural and urban India in 2013 and 2014. Of 10,703 adults ages 18 years and older with coresiding household members surveyed, data from 7,522 adults (mean age 39 years) in 2,574 households with complete covariate information were analyzed. The main outcome measures were diabetes (fasting plasma glucose ≥ 126 mg/dL or taking medication), common mental disorder (General Health Questionnaire score ≥ 12), hypertension (blood pressure ≥ 140/90 mmHg or taking medication), obesity (body mass index ≥ 30 kg/m2), and high cholesterol (total blood cholesterol ≥ 240 mg/dL or taking medication). Logistic regression with generalized estimating equations was used to model associations with adjustment for a participant's age, sex, education, marital status, religion, and study site. Inverse probability weighting was applied to account for missing data. We found that 44% of adults had 1 or more of the chronic conditions examined. Irrespective of familial relationship, adults who resided with another adult with any chronic condition had 29% higher adjusted relative odds of having 1 or more chronic conditions themselves (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.29; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.10-1.50). We also observed positive statistically significant associations of diabetes, common mental disorder, and hypertension with any chronic condition (aORs ranging from 1.19 to 1.61) in the analysis of all coresiding household members. Associations, however, were stronger for concordance of certain chronic conditions among coresiding household members. Specifically, we observed positive statistically significant associations between living with another adult with diabetes (aOR = 1.60; 95% CI 1.23-2.07), common mental disorder (aOR = 2.69; 95% CI 2.12-3.42), or obesity (aOR = 1.82; 95% CI 1.33-2.50) and having the same condition. Among separate analyses of dyads of parents and their adult children and dyads of spouses, the concordance between the chronic disease status was striking. The associations between common mental disorder, hypertension, obesity, and high cholesterol in parents and those same conditions in their adult children were aOR = 2.20 (95% CI 1.28-3.77), 1.58 (95% CI 1.15-2.16), 4.99 (95% CI 2.71-9.20), and 2.57 (95% CI 1.15-5.73), respectively. The associations between diabetes and common mental disorder in husbands and those same conditions in their wives were aORs = 2.28 (95% CI 1.52-3.42) and 3.01 (95% CI 2.01-4.52), respectively. Relative odds were raised even across different chronic condition phenotypes; specifically, we observed positive statistically significant associations between hypertension and obesity in the total sample of all coresiding adults (aOR = 1.24; 95% CI 1.02-1.52), high cholesterol and diabetes in the adult-parent sample (aOR = 2.02; 95% CI 1.08-3.78), and hypertension and diabetes in the spousal sample (aOR = 1.51; 95% CI 1.05-2.17). Of all associations examined, only the relationship between hypertension and diabetes in the adult-parent dyads was statistically significantly negative (aOR = 0.62; 95% CI 0.40-0.94). Relatively small samples in the dyadic analysis and site-specific analysis call for caution in interpreting qualitative differences between associations among different dyad types and geographical locations. Because of the cross-sectional nature of the analysis, the findings do not provide information on the etiology of incident chronic conditions among household members. CONCLUSIONS: We observed strong concordance of chronic conditions within coresiding adults across diverse settings in India. These data provide early evidence that a household-based approach to chronic disease research may advance public health strategies to prevent and control chronic conditions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinical Trials Registry India CTRI/2013/10/004049; http://ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/login.php.

Legume consumption and its association with fasting glucose, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes in the Indian Migration Study.

OBJECTIVE: Legume consumption is associated with lower fasting glucose (FG) and insulin levels in nutrition trials and lower CVD mortality in large-scale epidemiological studies. In India, legumes are widely consumed in various preparations, yet no epidemiological study has evaluated the association of legumes with FG levels, insulin resistance and diabetes risk. The present study aimed to fill this gap. DESIGN: Fasting blood samples, in-person interviews to obtain information on demographic/socio-economic factors, physical activity, alcohol and tobacco use, and anthropometric measurements were collected. Dietary intakes were assessed by an interviewer-administered, validated, semi-quantitative FFQ. SETTING: Lucknow, Nagpur, Hyderabad and Bangalore, India. SUBJECTS: Men and women (n 6367) aged 15-76 years - urban residents, urban migrants and their rural siblings. RESULTS: In multivariate random-effects models adjusted for age, BMI, total energy intake, macronutrients, physical activity and rural/migration status, daily legume consumption was not associated with FG (P-for-trend=0·78), insulin resistance (homeostasis model assessment score; P-for-trend=0·73) or the prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (P-for-trend=0·41). Stratified analyses by vegetarian diet and migration status did not change the findings. Inverse associations between legumes and FG emerged for participants with lower BMI and higher carbohydrate, protein, fat and sugar intakes. CONCLUSIONS: Although legumes are essential in traditional Indian diets, as well as in prudent and Mediterranean diets in the West, we did not find an association between legumes and markers of glycaemic control, insulin resistance or diabetes, except for subgroups based on BMI and macronutrient intake. The ubiquitous presence and complexity of legume preparations in Indian diets may contribute to these findings.

Prevalence and correlates of achieving recommended physical activity levels among children living in rural South Asia-A multi-centre study.

BACKGROUND: We report the prevalence of recommended physical activity levels (RPALs) and examine the correlates of achieving RPALs in rural South Asian children and analyse its association with anthropometric outcomes. METHODS: This analysis on rural South Asian children aged 5-14 years (n = 564) is a part of the Chronic Disease Risk Factor study conducted at three sites in India (Chennai n = 146; Goa n = 218) and Bangladesh (Matlab; n = 200). Data on socio-demographic and lifestyle factors (physical activity (PA); diet) were collected using an interviewer-administered questionnaires, along with objective anthropometric measurements. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to examine whether RPALs (active travel to school (yes/no); leisure-time PA ≥ 1 h/day; sedentary-activity ≤ 2 h/day) were associated with socio-demographic factors, diet and other forms of PA. Multivariate linear regression models were used to investigate associations between RPALs and anthropometrics (BMI- and waist z-scores). RESULTS: The majority of children (71.8 %) belonged to households where a parent had at least a secondary education. Two-thirds (66.7 %) actively travelled to school; 74.6 % reported ≥1 h/day of leisure-time PA and 55.7 % had ≤2 h/day of sedentary-activity; 25.2 % of children reported RPALs in all three dimensions. Older (10-14 years, OR = 2.0; 95 % CI: 1.3, 3.0) and female (OR = 1.7; 95 % CI: 1.1, 2.5) children were more likely to travel actively to school. Leisure-time PA ≥ 1 h/day was more common among boys (OR = 2.5; 95 % CI: 1.5, 4.0), children in Matlab, Bangladesh (OR = 3.0; 95 % CI: 1.6, 5.5), and those with higher processed-food consumption (OR = 2.3; 95 % CI: 1.2, 4.1). Sedentary activity ≤ 2 h/day was associated with younger children (5-9 years, OR = 1.6; 95 % CI: 1.1, 2.4), children of Goa (OR = 3.5; 95 % CI: 2.1, 6.1) and Chennai (OR = 2.5; 95 % CI: 1.5, 4.3) and low household education (OR = 2.1; 95 % CI: 1.1, 4.1). In multivariate analyses, sedentary activity ≤ 2 h/day was associated with lower BMI-z-scores (ß = -0.3; 95 % CI: -0.5, -0.08) and lower waist-z-scores (ß = -1.1; 95 % CI: -2.2, -0.07). CONCLUSION: Only one quarter of children in these rural areas achieved RPAL in active travel, leisure and sedentary activity. Improved understanding of RPAL in rural South Asian children is important due to rapid socio-economic transition.

Recommendations for screening and early detection of common cancers in India.

Cancers of the breast, uterine cervix, and lip or oral cavity are three of the most common malignancies in India. Together, they account for about 34% of more than 1 million individuals diagnosed with cancer in India each year. At each of these cancer sites, tumours are detectable at early stages when they are most likely to be cured with standard treatment protocols. Recognising the key role that effective early detection and screening programmes could have in reducing the cancer burden, the Indian Institute for Cytology and Preventive Oncology, in collaboration with the US National Cancer Institute Center for Global Health, held a workshop to summarise feasible options and relevant evidence for screening and early detection of common cancers in India. The evidence-based recommendations provided in this Review are intended to act as a guide for policy makers, clinicians, and public health practitioners who are developing and implementing strategies in cancer control for the three most common cancers in India.

Report from a symposium on catalyzing primary and secondary prevention of cancer in India.

PURPOSE: Oral, breast, and cervical cancers are amenable to early detection and account for a third of India's cancer burden. We convened a symposium of diverse stakeholders to identify gaps in evidence, policy, and advocacy for the primary and secondary prevention of these cancers and recommendations to accelerate these efforts. METHODS: Indian and global experts from government, academia, private sector (health care, media), donor organizations, and civil society (including cancer survivors and patient advocates) presented and discussed challenges and solutions related to strategic communication and implementation of prevention, early detection, and treatment linkages. RESULTS: Innovative approaches to implementing and scaling up primary and secondary prevention were discussed using examples from India and elsewhere in the world. Participants also reflected on existing global guidelines and national cancer prevention policies and experiences. CONCLUSIONS: Symposium participants proposed implementation-focused research, advocacy, and policy/program priorities to strengthen primary and secondary prevention efforts in India to address the burden of oral, breast, and cervical cancers and improve survival.

Intra-household evaluations of alcohol abuse in men with depression and suicide in women: A cross-sectional community-based study in Chennai, India.

BACKGROUND: Harmful effects of alcohol abuse are well documented for drinkers, and adverse effects are also reported for the physical and emotional well-being of family members, with evidence often originating from either drinkers or their families in clinic-based settings. This study evaluates intra-household associations between alcohol abuse in men, and depression and suicidal attempts in women, in community-based settings of Chennai, India. METHODS: This community-based cross-sectional study of chronic disease risk factors and outcomes was conducted in n = 259 households and n = 1053 adults (aged 15 years and above) in rural and urban Chennai. The Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) score was used to classify alcohol consumption into 'low-risk', 'harmful', 'hazardous' and 'alcohol dependence' drinking and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) score to classify depression as 'mild', 'moderate', 'moderate-severe' and 'severe'. Multivariate logistic regression models estimated the association of depression in women with men's drinking patterns in the same household. RESULTS: A significant 2.5-fold increase in any depression (PHQ-9 ≥ 5) was observed in men who were 'alcohol-dependent' compared to non-drinkers (OR = 2.53; 95% CI: 1.26, 5.09). However, there was no association between men's drinking behavior and depression in women of the same household, although suicidal attempts approached a significant dose-response relationship with increasing hazard-level of men's drinking (p = 0.08). CONCLUSION: No significant intra-household association was observed between men's alcohol consumption and women's depression, though an increasing (non-significant) trend was associated with suicidal attempts. Complex relationships between suicidal attempts and depression in women and male abusive drinking require further exploration, with an emphasis on intra-household mechanisms and pathways.

Associations between active travel and adiposity in rural India and Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Data on use and health benefits of active travel in rural low- and middle- income country settings are sparse. We aimed to examine correlates of active travel, and its association with adiposity, in rural India and Bangladesh. METHODS: Cross sectional study of 2,122 adults (≥18 years) sampled in 2011-13 from two rural sites in India (Goa and Chennai) and one in Bangladesh (Matlab). Logistic regression was used to examine whether ≥150 min/week of active travel was associated with socio-demographic indices, smoking, oil/butter consumption, and additional physical activity. Adjusting for these same factors, associations between active travel and BMI, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio were examined using linear and logistic regression. RESULTS: Forty-six percent of the sample achieved recommended levels of physical activity (≥150 min/week) through active travel alone (range: 33.1 % in Matlab to 54.8 % in Goa). This was more frequent among smokers (adjusted odds ratio 1.36, 95 % confidence interval 1.07-1.72; p = 0.011) and those that spent ≥150 min/week in work-based physical activity (OR 1.71, 1.35-2.16; p < 0.001), but less frequent among females than males (OR 0.25, 0.20-0.31; p < 0.001). In fully adjusted analyses, ≥150 min/week of active travel was associated with lower BMI (adjusted coefficient -0.39 kg/m(2), -0.77 to -0.02; p = 0.037) and a lower likelihood of high waist circumference (OR 0.77, 0.63-0.96; p = 0.018) and high waist-to-hip ratio (OR 0.72, 0.58-0.89; p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Use of active travel for ≥150 min/week was associated with being male, smoking, and higher levels of work-based physical activity. It was associated with lower BMI, and lower risk of a high waist circumference or high waist-to-hip ratio. Promotion of active travel is an important component of strategies to address the growing prevalence of overweight in rural low- and middle- income country settings.

Evidence-informed frameworks for cost-effective cancer care and prevention in low, middle, and high-income countries.

Evidence-informed frameworks for cost-effective cancer prevention and management are essential for delivering equitable outcomes and tackling the growing burden of cancer in all resource settings. Evidence can help address the demand side pressures (ie, pressures exerted by people who need care) faced by economies with high, middle, and low incomes, particularly in the context of transitioning towards (or sustaining) universal health-care coverage. Strong systems, as opposed to technology-based solutions, can drive the development and implementation of evidence-informed frameworks for prevention and management of cancer in an equitable and affordable way. For this to succeed, different stakeholders-including national governments, global donors, the commercial sector, and service delivery institutions-must work together to address the growing burden of cancer across economies of low, middle, and high income.

Cancer research in India: national priorities, global results.

Over the past 20 years, cancer research in India has grown in size and impact. Clinicians, scientists, and government and state policy makers in India have championed cancer research, from studies to achieve low-tech, large-scale health outcomes to some of the most advanced areas of fundamental cancer science. In this paper, we frame public policy discussions about cancer with use of an in-depth analysis of research publications from India. Cancer research in India is a complex environment that needs to balance public policy across many competing agendas. We identify major needs across these environments such as those for increased research capacity and training and protected time for clinical researchers; for more support from states and enhanced collaborative funding programmes from government; for development of national infrastructures across a range of domains (ie, clinical trials, tissue banking, registries, etc); and for a streamlined and rational regulatory environment. We also discuss improvements that should be made to translate research into improvements in cancer outcomes and public health.

Type of vegetarian diet, obesity and diabetes in adult Indian population.

BACKGROUND: To investigate the prevalence of obesity and diabetes among adult men and women in India consuming different types of vegetarian diets compared with those consuming non-vegetarian diets. METHODS: We used cross-sectional data of 156,317 adults aged 20-49 years who participated in India's third National Family Health Survey (2005-06). Association between types of vegetarian diet (vegan, lacto-vegetarian, lacto-ovo vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian, semi-vegetarian and non-vegetarian) and self-reported diabetes status and measured body mass index (BMI) were estimated using multivariable logistic regression adjusting for age, gender, education, household wealth, rural/urban residence, religion, caste, smoking, alcohol use, and television watching. RESULTS: Mean BMI was lowest in pesco-vegetarians (20.3 kg/m2) and vegans (20.5 kg/m2) and highest in lacto-ovo vegetarian (21.0 kg/m2) and lacto-vegetarian (21.2 kg/m2) diets. Prevalence of diabetes varied from 0.9% (95% CI: 0.8-1.1) in person consuming lacto-vegetarian, lacto-ovo vegetarian (95% CI:0.6-1.3) and semi-vegetarian (95% CI:0.7-1.1) diets and was highest in those persons consuming a pesco-vegetarian diet (1.4%; 95% CI:1.0-2.0). Consumption of a lacto- (OR:0.67;95% CI:0.58-0.76;p < 0.01), lacto-ovo (OR:0.70; 95% CI:0.51-0.96;p = 0.03) and semi-vegetarian (OR:0.77; 95% CI:0.60-0.98; p = 0.03) diet was associated with a lower likelihood of diabetes than a non-vegetarian diet in the adjusted analyses. CONCLUSIONS: In this large, nationally representative sample of Indian adults, lacto-, lacto-ovo and semi-vegetarian diets were associated with a lower likelihood of diabetes. These findings may assist in the development of interventions to address the growing burden of overweight/obesity and diabetes in Indian population. However, prospective studies with better measures of dietary intake and clinical measures of diabetes are needed to clarify this relationship.

Individual-level determinants of breast and cervical cancer screening and early testing in two regionally representative urban Indian populations.

Introduction: Region-specific data on individual factors associated with uptake of breast and cervical cancer screening or early testing in diverse Indian populations are limited. Aim: To assess the prevalence and individual determinants of uptake of breast and/or cervical cancer screening or testing among women aged 30-69 years in regionally representative populations of two large Indian cities: New Delhi and Chennai. Methods: We conducted an analysis of the cross-sectional data (2016-2017) nested within the Centre for Cardiometabolic Risk Reduction in South Asia cohort, established in 2010-2011 with 12,271 participants (5365 in New Delhi; 6906 in Chennai). Among 3310 women participants, we evaluated the associations of demographic, socioeconomic, lifestyle, medical, psychosocial, and reproductive factors with breast and/or cervical cancer screening or testing using multivariable logistic regression models with results expressed as adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results: At any point prior to 2016-2017, 193 women self-reported having undergone evaluations for breast and/or cervical cancer. The reasons for evaluation were 'general examination' or 'physician's advice' (i.e., screening) or 'being symptomatic' (i.e., early testing). The overall prevalence was 5.8% for screening or testing and 2.5% for screening alone. Formal education (OR:1.88; 95% CI:1.12-3.15), high monthly household income (OR:2.27; 95% CI:1.59-3.25) and less 'fear-of-judgement' (OR:1.65; 95% CI:1.05-2.58) were positively associated with screening or testing uptake. When screening uptake was analysed separately, the results were generally similar. Conclusion: Our findings may have important implications for interventions at community-level (e.g., reducing 'fear-of-judgement', increasing awareness to screening programs and early symptoms) and health-system level (e.g., opportunistic screening).

Chronic Exposure to Drinking Water Arsenic and Gallbladder Cancer Risk: Preliminary Evidence from Endemic Regions of India.

BACKGROUND: Evidence linking arsenic in drinking water to digestive tract cancers is limited. We evaluated the association between arsenic levels in groundwater and gallbladder cancer risk in a case-control study (2019-2021) of long-term residents (≥10years) in two arsenic-impacted and high gallbladder cancer risk states of India-Assam and Bihar. METHODS: We recruited men and women aged 30 to 69 years from hospitals (73.4% women), with newly diagnosed, biopsy-confirmed gallbladder cancer (N = 214) and unrelated controls frequency-matched for 5-year age, sex, and state (N = 166). Long-term residential history, lifestyle factors, family history, socio-demographics, and physical measurements were collected. Average-weighted arsenic concentration (AwAC) was extrapolated from district-level groundwater monitoring data (2017-2018) and residential history. We evaluated gallbladder cancer risk for tertiles of AwAC (µg/L) in multivariable logistic regression models adjusted for important confounders [Range: 0-448.39; median (interquartile range), T1-0.45 (0.0-1.19); T2-3.75 (2.83-7.38); T3-17.6 (12.34-20.54)]. RESULTS: We observed a dose-response increase in gallbladder cancer risk based on AwAC tertiles [OR = 2.00 (95% confidence interval, 1.05-3.79) and 2.43 (1.30-4.54); Ptrend = 0.007]. Participants in the highest AwAC tertile consumed more tubewell water (67.7% vs. 27.9%) and reported more sediments (37.9% vs. 18.7%) with unsatisfactory color, odor, and taste (49.2% vs. 25.0%) than those in the lowest tertile. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest chronic arsenic exposure in drinking water at low-moderate levels may be a potential risk factor for gallbladder cancer. IMPACT: Risk factors for gallbladder cancer, a lethal digestive tract cancer, are not fully understood. Data from arsenic-endemic regions of India, with a high incidence of gallbladder cancer, may offer unique insights. Tackling 'arsenic pollution' may help reduce the burden of several health outcomes.

Linking population-based cohorts with cancer registries in LMIC: a case study and lessons learnt in India.

OBJECTIVES: In resource-constrained settings, cancer epidemiology research typically relies on self-reported diagnoses. To test a more systematic alternative approach, we assessed the feasibility of linking a cohort with a cancer registry. SETTING: Data linkage was performed between a population-based cohort in Chennai, India, with a local population-based cancer registry. PARTICIPANTS: Data set of Centre for Cardiometabolic Risk Reduction in South-Asia (CARRS) cohort participants (N=11 772) from Chennai was linked with the cancer registry data set for the period 1982-2015 (N=140 986). METHODS AND OUTCOME MEASURES: Match*Pro, a probabilistic record linkage software, was used for computerised linkages followed by manual review of high scoring records. The variables used for linkage included participant name, gender, age, address, Postal Index Number and father's and spouse's name. Registry records between 2010 and 2015 and between 1982 and 2015, respectively, represented incident and all (both incident and prevalent) cases. The extent of agreement between self-reports and registry-based ascertainment was expressed as the proportion of cases found in both data sets among cases identified independently in each source. RESULTS: There were 52 self-reported cancer cases among 11 772 cohort participants, but 5 cases were misreported. Of the remaining 47 eligible self-reported cases (incident and prevalent), 37 (79%) were confirmed by registry linkage. Among 29 self-reported incident cancers, 25 (86%) were found in the registry. Registry linkage also identified 24 previously not reported cancers; 12 of those were incident cases. The likelihood of linkage was higher in more recent years (2014-2015). CONCLUSIONS: Although linkage variables in this study had limited discriminatory power in the absence of a unique identifier, an appreciable proportion of self-reported cases were confirmed in the registry via linkages. More importantly, the linkages also identified many previously unreported cases. These findings offer new insights that can inform future cancer surveillance and research in low-income and middle-income countries.

α-Methylacyl-CoA racemase expression and lethal prostate cancer in the Physicians' Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study.

BACKGROUND: α-Methylacyl-CoA racemase (AMACR) is an enzyme that serves as a diagnostic biomarker of prostate cancer in clinical practice. Recent studies suggest that low AMACR expression is associated with biochemical recurrence and the development of fatal disease. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study among 920 men aged 47-84 years, who were diagnosed with prostate cancer in the Physicians' Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study cohorts, and whose resected tissue specimens were available for immunohistochemical analysis. We used Cox proportional hazards regression to evaluate the association of AMACR expression with lethal prostate cancer over a 20-year follow-up period. RESULTS: In total, 68 men died from prostate cancer, and an additional 18 developed bony metastases during follow-up. We found that lower AMACR intensity was associated with higher prostate-specific antigen levels (P = 0.003) and more advanced clinical stage (P = 0.06) at diagnosis, and a nonsignificant trend for higher risk of lethal outcomes. The hazard ratio (HR) comparing the lowest to the highest quartile of AMACR expression intensity was 1.53 ((95% CI: 0.86-2.73), P-for-trend across quartiles = 0.07); this trend was further attenuated after adjustment for age, Gleason score, stage, and cohort with a HR of 1.24 (95% CI: 0.69-2.22), P-for-trend = 0.23. CONCLUSIONS: Low AMACR expression in primary tumor specimens was not independently associated with the development of metastatic and lethal prostate cancer after treatment over a 20-year follow-up period, after adjustment for important clinical covariates at diagnosis.