Loss of the Atrial Fibrillation-Related Gene, Zfhx3, Results in Atrial Dilation and Arrhythmias.

BACKGROUND: ZFHX3 (zinc finger homeobox 3), a gene that encodes a large transcription factor, is at the second-most significantly associated locus with atrial fibrillation (AF), but its function in the heart is unknown. This study aims to identify causative genetic variation related to AF at the ZFHX3 locus and examine the impact of Zfhx3 loss on cardiac function in mice. METHODS: CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and luciferase assays in pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes were used to identify causative genetic variation related to AF at the ZFHX3 locus. Cardiac function was assessed by echocardiography, magnetic resonance imaging, electrophysiology studies, calcium imaging, and RNA sequencing in mice with heterozygous and homozygous cardiomyocyte-restricted Zfhx3 loss (Zfhx3 Het and knockout, respectively). Human cardiac single-nucleus ATAC (assay for transposase-accessible chromatin)-sequencing data was analyzed to determine which genes in atrial cardiomyocytes are directly regulated by ZFHX3. RESULTS: We found single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs12931021 modulates an enhancer regulating ZFHX3 expression, and the AF risk allele is associated with decreased ZFHX3 transcription. We observed a gene-dose response in AF susceptibility with Zfhx3 knockout mice having higher incidence, frequency, and burden of AF than Zfhx3 Het and wild-type mice, with alterations in conduction velocity, atrial action potential duration, calcium handling and the development of atrial enlargement and thrombus, and dilated cardiomyopathy. Zfhx3 loss results in atrial-specific differential effects on genes and signaling pathways involved in cardiac pathophysiology and AF. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings implicate ZFHX3 as the causative gene at the 16q22 locus for AF, and cardiac abnormalities caused by loss of cardiac Zfhx3 are due to atrial-specific dysregulation of pathways involved in AF susceptibility. Together, these data reveal a novel and important role for Zfhx3 in the control of cardiac genes and signaling pathways essential for normal atrial function.

An 18-gene signature of recurrence-associated endothelial cells predicts tumor progression and castration resistance in prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: The prognostic and therapeutic implications of endothelial cells (ECs) heterogeneity in prostate cancer (PCa) are poorly understood. METHODS: We investigated associations of EC heterogeneity with PCa recurrence and castration resistance in 8 bulk transcriptomic and 4 single-cell RNA-seq cohorts. A recurrence-associated EC (RAEC) signature was constructed by comparing 11 machine learning algorithms through nested cross-validation. Functional relevances of RAEC-specific genes were also tested. RESULTS: A subset of ECs was significantly associated with recurrence in primary PCa and named RAECs. RAECs were characteristic of tip and immature cells and were enriched in migration, angiogenesis, and collagen-related pathways. We then developed an 18-gene RAEC signature (RAECsig) representative of RAECs. Higher RAECsig scores independently predicted tumor recurrence and performed better or comparably compared to clinicopathological factors and commercial gene signatures in multiple PCa cohorts. Of the 18 RAECsig genes, FSCN1 was upregulated in ECs from PCa with higher Gleason scores; and the silencing of FSCN1, TMEME255B, or GABRD in ECs either attenuated tube formation or inhibited PCa cell proliferation. Finally, higher RAECsig scores predicted castration resistance in both primary and castration-resistant PCa. CONCLUSION: This study establishes an endothelial signature that links a subset of ECs to prostate cancer recurrence and castration resistance.

Nitazoxanide inhibits acetylated KLF5-induced bone metastasis by modulating KLF5 function in prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Castration-resistant prostate cancer often metastasizes to the bone, and such bone metastases eventually become resistant to available therapies, leading to the death of patients. Enriched in the bone, TGF-ß plays a pivotal role in bone metastasis development. However, directly targeting TGF-ß or its receptors has been challenging for the treatment of bone metastasis. We previously found that TGF-ß induces and then depends on the acetylation of transcription factor KLF5 at K369 to regulate multiple biological processes, including the induction of EMT, cellular invasiveness, and bone metastasis. Acetylated KLF5 (Ac-KLF5) and its downstream effectors are thus potential therapeutic targets for treating TGF-ß-induced bone metastasis in prostate cancer. METHODS: A spheroid invasion assay was applied to prostate cancer cells expressing KLF5K369Q, which mimics Ac-KLF5, to screen 1987 FDA-approved drugs for invasion suppression. Luciferase- and KLF5K369Q-expressing cells were injected into nude mice via the tail artery to model bone metastasis. Bioluminescence imaging, micro-CT), and histological analyses were applied to monitor and evaluate bone metastases. RNA-sequencing, bioinformatic, and biochemical analyses were used to understand nitazoxanide (NTZ)-regulated genes, signaling pathways, and the underlying mechanisms. The binding of NTZ to KLF5 proteins was evaluated using fluorescence titration, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and circular dichroism (CD) analysis. RESULTS: NTZ, an anthelmintic agent, was identified as a potent invasion inhibitor in the screening and validation assays. In KLF5K369Q-induced bone metastasis, NTZ exerted a potent inhibitory effect in preventive and therapeutic modes. NTZ also inhibited osteoclast differentiation, a cellular process responsible for bone metastasis induced by KLF5K369Q. NTZ attenuated the function of KLF5K369Q in 127 genes' upregulation and 114 genes' downregulation. Some genes' expression changes were significantly associated with worse overall survival in patients with prostate cancer. One such change was the upregulation of MYBL2, which functionally promotes bone metastasis in prostate cancer. Additional analyses demonstrated that NTZ bound to the KLF5 protein, KLF5K369Q bound to the promoter of MYBL2 to activate its transcription, and NTZ attenuated the binding of KLF5K369Q to the MYBL2 promoter. CONCLUSIONS: NTZ is a potential therapeutic agent for bone metastasis induced by the TGF-ß/Ac-KLF5 signaling axis in prostate cancer and likely other cancers.

AR imposes different effects on ZFHX3 transcription depending on androgen status in prostate cancer cells.

Both androgen receptor (AR) and the ZFHX3 transcription factor modulate prostate development. While AR drives prostatic carcinogenesis, ZFHX3 is a tumour suppressor whose loss activates the PI3K/AKT signalling in advanced prostate cancer (PCa). However, it is unknown whether ZFHX3 and AR are functionally related in PCa cells and, if so, how. Here, we report that in AR-positive LNCaP and C4-2B PCa cells, androgen upregulates ZFHX3 transcription via androgen-induced AR binding to the androgen-responsive elements (AREs) of the ZFHX3 promoter. Androgen also upregulated ZFHX3 transcription in vivo, as castration dramatically reduced Zfhx3 mRNA and protein levels in mouse prostates, and ZFHX3 mRNA levels correlated with AR activities in human PCa. Interestingly, the binding of AR to one ARE occurred in the absence of androgen, and the binding repressed ZFHX3 transcription as this repressive binding was interrupted by androgen treatment. The enzalutamide antiandrogen prevented androgen from inducing ZFHX3 transcription and caused excess ZFHX3 protein degradation. In human PCa, ZFHX3 was downregulated and the downregulation correlated with worse patient survival. These findings establish a regulatory relationship between AR and ZFHX3, suggest a role of ZFHX3 in AR function and implicate ZFHX3 loss in the antiandrogen therapies of PCa.

The transcription factor ZFHX3 is crucial for the angiogenic function of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α in liver cancer cells.

Angiogenesis is a hallmark of tumorigenesis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is hypervascular and therefore very dependent on angiogenesis for tumor development and progression. Findings from previous studies suggest that in HCC cells, hypoxia-induced factor 1α (HIF1A) and zinc finger homeobox 3 (ZFHX3) transcription factors functionally interact in the regulation of genes in HCC cells. Here, we report that hypoxia increases the transcription of the ZFHX3 gene and enhances the binding of HIF1A to the ZFHX3 promoter in the HCC cell lines HepG2 and Huh-7. Moreover, ZFHX3, in turn, physically associated with and was functionally indispensable for HIF1A to exert its angiogenic activity, as indicated by in vitro migration and tube formation assays of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and microvessel formation in xenograft tumors of HCC cells. Mechanistically, ZFHX3 was required for HIF1A to transcriptionally activate the vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) gene by binding to its promoter. Functionally, down-regulation of ZFHX3 in HCC cells slowed their tumor growth, and addition of VEGFA to conditioned medium from ZFHX3-silenced HCC cells partially rescued the inhibitory effect of this medium on HUVEC tube formation. In human HCC, ZFHX3 expression was up-regulated, and this up-regulation correlated with both HIF1A up-regulation and worse patient survival, confirming a functional association between ZFHX3 and HIF1A in human HCC. We conclude that ZFHX3 is an angiogenic transcription factor that is integral to the HIF1A/VEGFA signaling axis in HCC cells.

SUMOylation of the transcription factor ZFHX3 at Lys-2806 requires SAE1, UBC9, and PIAS2 and enhances its stability and function in cell proliferation.

SUMOylation is a posttranslational modification (PTM) at a lysine residue and is crucial for the proper functions of many proteins, particularly of transcription factors, in various biological processes. Zinc finger homeobox 3 (ZFHX3), also known as AT motif-binding factor 1 (ATBF1), is a large transcription factor that is active in multiple pathological processes, including atrial fibrillation and carcinogenesis, and in circadian regulation and development. We have previously demonstrated that ZFHX3 is SUMOylated at three or more lysine residues. Here, we investigated which enzymes regulate ZFHX3 SUMOylation and whether SUMOylation modulates ZFHX3 stability and function. We found that SUMO1, SUMO2, and SUMO3 each are conjugated to ZFHX3. Multiple lysine residues in ZFHX3 were SUMOylated, but Lys-2806 was the major SUMOylation site, and we also found that it is highly conserved among ZFHX3 orthologs from different animal species. Using molecular analyses, we identified the enzymes that mediate ZFHX3 SUMOylation; these included SUMO1-activating enzyme subunit 1 (SAE1), an E1-activating enzyme; SUMO-conjugating enzyme UBC9 (UBC9), an E2-conjugating enzyme; and protein inhibitor of activated STAT2 (PIAS2), an E3 ligase. Multiple analyses established that both SUMO-specific peptidase 1 (SENP1) and SENP2 deSUMOylate ZFHX3. SUMOylation at Lys-2806 enhanced ZFHX3 stability by interfering with its ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Functionally, Lys-2806 SUMOylation enabled ZFHX3-mediated cell proliferation and xenograft tumor growth of the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. These findings reveal the enzymes involved in, and the functional consequences of, ZFHX3 SUMOylation, insights that may help shed light on ZFHX3's roles in various cellular and pathophysiological processes.

Ras inhibits TGF-ß-induced KLF5 acetylation and transcriptional complex assembly via regulating SMAD2/3 phosphorylation in epithelial cells.

Acetylated Kruppel-like factor 5 (KLF5) is essential for transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) to properly regulate gene transcription in the inhibition of cell proliferation and tumor growth. Ras oncogenic signaling can convert TGF-ß from a tumor suppressor to a tumor promoter; however, its ability to utilize the KLF5 transcription factor to modulate TGF-ß functions is still unknown. Therefore, in this study, we sought to determine whether Ras signaling altered TGF-ß-induced KLF5 acetylation and the assembly of the p300-KLF5-SMADs transcriptional complex in gene regulation. Not only did we determine that Ras signaling inhibited TGF-ß-induced KLF5 acetylation and interfered with TGF-ß function in p15 induction and Myc repression, but also TGF-ß-induced SMAD3 C-terminal region phosphorylation was necessary for TGF-ß to induce KLF5 acetylation. Moreover, Ras activation further interrupted the interactions amongst p300, KLF5, and SMAD4, as well as the binding of p300-KLF5-SMADs complex onto the TGF-ß-responsive promoter elements for both p15 and Myc. These findings suggested that KLF5 mediated the crosstalk between TGF-ß and Ras signaling, and that suppression of TGF-ß-induced KLF5 acetylation by Ras activation; this altered TGF-ß-induced assembly of p300-KLF5-SMADs complex onto gene promoters to convert the function of TGF-ß in gene regulation.

CINP is a novel cofactor of KLF5 required for its role in the promotion of cell proliferation, survival and tumor growth.

Krüppel-like factor 5 (KLF5) both suppresses and promotes tumor growth depending on cellular context. The mechanisms underlying tumor promotion could be targetable for therapy. Although a number of transcriptional targets of KLF5 have been identified and implicated in KLF5-mediated tumor growth, how KLF5 regulates these genes remains to be addressed. Here we performed coimmunoprecipitation (co-IP) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in the TSU-Pr1 bladder cancer cell line, in which KLF5 is shown to promote tumor growth, to identify KLF5-interacting nuclear proteins that are necessary for KLF5's tumor promoting function. LC-MS/MS revealed 122 potential KLF5 binding proteins in the nuclear proteins precipitated by the KLF5 antibody, and the top nine candidates included AHNAK, TFAM, HSDL2, HNRNPC, CINP, IST1, FBL, PABPC1 and SNRNP40. SRB assays of these nine proteins indicated that silencing CINP had the most potent inhibitory effect on cell growth in KLF5-expressing cells but did not affect parental TSU-Pr1 cells. Further analyses not only confirmed the physical interaction between KLF5 and CINP, also demonstrated that knockdown of CINP attenuated the effects of KLF5 on cell cycle progression, apoptosis and tumorigenesis. Silencing CINP also attenuated the effect of KLF5 on the expression of a number of genes and signaling pathways, including cell cycle regulator Cyclin D1 and apoptosis-related Caspase 7. These results suggest that CINP is a cofactor of KLF5 that is crucial for the promotion of tumor growth, and that the KLF5-CINP interaction could be a novel therapeutic target for inhibiting KLF5-promoted tumor growth.

Sox7 negatively regulates prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) expression through PSMA-enhancer.

BACKGROUND: PSMA expression in the prostate epithelium is controlled by a cis-element, PSMA enhancer (PSME). PSME contains multiple binding sites for Sox proteins, and in this study, we identified Sox7 protein as a negative regulator of PSMA expression through its interaction with PSME. METHODS: The statistical correlation between Sox7 and PSMA mRNA expression was evaluated using five prostate cancer studies from cBioportal. In vitro and in vivo interaction between Sox7 and PSME was evaluated by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), and luciferase reporter assay. Synthetic oligonucleotides were generated to define the sites in PSME that interact with Sox7 protein. Sox7 mutants were generated to identify the region of this protein required to regulate PSMA expression. Sox7 was also stably expressed in LNCaP/C4-2 and 22Rv1 cells to validate the regulation of PSMA expression by Sox7 in vivo. RESULTS: Sox7 mRNA expression negatively correlated with PSMA/FOLH1 and PSMAL/FOLH1B mRNA expression in Broad/Cornell, TCGA and MSKCC studies, but not in two studies containing only metastatic prostate tumors. PC-3 cells mostly expressed the 48.5 KDa isoform 2 of Sox7, and the depletion of this isoform did not restore PSMA expression. Ectopic expression of canonical, wild-type Sox7 in C4-2 and 22Rv1 cells suppressed PSMA protein expression. ChIP assay revealed that canonical Sox7 protein preferentially interacts with PSME in vivo, and EMSA identified the SOX box sites #2 and #4 in PSME as required for its interaction. Sox7 was capable of directly binding to PSME and suppressed PSME-mediated transcription. The NLS regions of Sox7, but not its ß-catenin interacting motif, are essential for this suppressing activity. Furthermore, restoration of wild-type Sox7 expression but not Sox7-NLS mutant in Sox7-null prostate cancer cell lines suppressed PSMA expression. CONCLUSIONS: The inactivation of canonical Sox7 is responsible for the upregulated expression of PSMA in non-metastatic prostate cancer.

Transcription factor ZFHX3 regulates calcium influx in mammary epithelial cells in part via the TRPV6 calcium channel.

Zinc finger homeobox 3 (ZFHX3) is a transcription factor that regulates multiple cellular processes including cell proliferation, differentiation and neoplastic development. It is also involved in the function of steroid hormones estrogen and progesterone and the peptide hormone prolactin in mammary epithelial cells. In this study, we investigated whether and how ZFHX3 regulates intracellular calcium homeostasis in mammary epithelial cells. We found that ZFHX3 affected both store operated calcium entry and store independent calcium entry (SOCE and SICE). Simultaneously, the expression of the calcium channel TRPV6 was regulated by ZFHX3, as demonstrated by expression analysis and luciferase reporter assay. In cells with knockdown of ZFHX3, calcium entry was partially rescued by the overexpression of wild type but not the pore mutants of TRPV6. In addition, overexpression of TRPV6 promoted differentiation of the MCF10A mammary epithelial cells in three-dimensional culture, which is consistent with our previous findings that ZFHX3 is essential for mammary gland differentiation. These findings suggest that ZFHX3 plays an important role in intracellular calcium homeostasis in mammary epithelial cells, at least in part, by regulating TRPV6.

HDAC-mediated deacetylation of KLF5 associates with its proteasomal degradation.

Krüppel-like factor 5 (KLF5) is a basic transcription factor that regulates diverse cellular processes during tumor development. Acetylation of KLF5 at lysine 369 (K369) reverses its function from promoting to suppressing cell proliferation and tumor growth. In this study, we examined the regulation of KLF5 by histone deacetylases in the prostate cancer cell line DU 145. While confirming the functions of HDAC1/2 in KLF5 deacetylation and the promotion of cell proliferation, we found that the knockdown of HDAC1/2 upregulated KLF5 protein but not KLF5 mRNA, and the increase in KLF5 protein level by silencing HDAC1/2 was at least in part due to decreased proteasomal degradation. Deacetylase activity was required for HDAC1/2-mediated KLF5 degradation, and mutation of KLF5 to an acetylation-mimicking form prevented its degradation, even though the mutation did not affect the binding of KLF5 with HDAC1/2. Mutation of K369 to arginine, which prevents acetylation, did not affect the binding of KLF5 to HDAC1 or the response of KLF5 to HDAC1/2-promoted degradation. These findings provide a novel mechanistic association between the acetylation status of KLF5 and its protein stability. They also suggest that maintaining KLF5 in a deacetylated form may be an important mechanism by which KLF5 and HDACs promote cell proliferation and tumor growth.

The miR-203/SNAI2 axis regulates prostate tumor growth, migration, angiogenesis and stemness potentially by modulating GSK-3ß/ß-CATENIN signal pathway.

Dysregulation of microRNA expression plays a pivotal role in the initiation and progression of a variety of human carcinomas including prostate cancer. Our previous studies have demonstrated that the silence of miR-203 contributes to the invasiveness of malignant breast cancer cells by targeting SNAI2. However, the effects and underlying mechanisms of miR-203/SNAI2 axis in prostate cancer have not been elucidated. The aim of this study is to explore the effects of miR-203/SNAI2 axis on the biological characteristics of prostate carcinomas both in vitro and in vivo. We found that miR-203 was significantly downregulated in prostate cancer cell lines compared with immortalized prostate epithelial cells using semi-quantitative PCR and real-time PCR, as well as in clinical prostate cancer tissues compared to normal tissues using TCGA analysis. Functionally, miR-203 inhibited prostate cancer cell proliferation, migration, endothelial cell tube formation and cancer stemness in vitro. Meanwhile, overexpression of miR-203 suppressed SNAI2 expression both in DU145 and PC3 cells. In addition, the in vivo study showed that miR-203 suppressed tumorigenicity, metastasis and angiogenesis of DU145 cells. Ectopic expression of SNAI2 rescued the inhibitory effects of miR-203 both in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, the EMT markers CDH1 and VIMENTIN were modulated by the miR-203/SNAI2 axis. Furthermore, the GSK-3ß/ß-CATENIN signal pathway was suppressed by miR-203 and could be reactivated by SNAI2. Taken together, this research unveiled the function of miR-203/SNAI2 axis in tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, stemness, metastasis and GSK-3ß/ß-CATENIN signal pathway in prostate cancer and gave insights into miR-203/SNAI2-targeting therapy for prostate cancer patients. © 2018 IUBMB Life, 70(3):224-236, 2018.

Zinc Finger Homeodomain Factor Zfhx3 Is Essential for Mammary Lactogenic Differentiation by Maintaining Prolactin Signaling Activity.

The zinc finger homeobox 3 (ZFHX3, also named ATBF1 for AT motif binding factor 1) is a transcription factor that suppresses prostatic carcinogenesis and induces neuronal differentiation. It also interacts with estrogen receptor α to inhibit cell proliferation and regulate pubertal mammary gland development in mice. In the present study, we examined whether and how Zfhx3 regulates lactogenic differentiation in mouse mammary glands. At different stages of mammary gland development, Zfhx3 protein was expressed at varying levels, with the highest level at lactation. In the HC11 mouse mammary epithelial cell line, an in vitro model of lactogenesis, knockdown of Zfhx3 attenuated prolactin-induced ß-casein expression and morphological changes, indicators of lactogenic differentiation. In mouse mammary tissue, knock-out of Zfhx3 interrupted lactogenesis, resulting in underdeveloped glands with much smaller and fewer alveoli, reduced ß-casein expression, accumulation of large cytoplasmic lipid droplets in luminal cells after parturition, and failure in lactation. Mechanistically, Zfhx3 maintained the expression of Prlr (prolactin receptor) and Prlr-Jak2-Stat5 signaling activity, whereas knockdown and knock-out of Zfhx3 in HC11 cells and mammary tissues, respectively, decreased Prlr expression, Stat5 phosphorylation, and the expression of Prlr-Jak2-Stat5 target genes. These findings indicate that Zfhx3 plays an essential role in proper lactogenic development in mammary glands, at least in part by maintaining Prlr expression and Prlr-Jak2-Stat5 signaling activity.

Evasion of anti-growth signaling: A key step in tumorigenesis and potential target for treatment and prophylaxis by natural compounds.

The evasion of anti-growth signaling is an important characteristic of cancer cells. In order to continue to proliferate, cancer cells must somehow uncouple themselves from the many signals that exist to slow down cell growth. Here, we define the anti-growth signaling process, and review several important pathways involved in growth signaling: p53, phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), retinoblastoma protein (Rb), Hippo, growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), AT-rich interactive domain 1A (ARID1A), Notch, insulin-like growth factor (IGF), and Krüppel-like factor 5 (KLF5) pathways. Aberrations in these processes in cancer cells involve mutations and thus the suppression of genes that prevent growth, as well as mutation and activation of genes involved in driving cell growth. Using these pathways as examples, we prioritize molecular targets that might be leveraged to promote anti-growth signaling in cancer cells. Interestingly, naturally occurring phytochemicals found in human diets (either singly or as mixtures) may promote anti-growth signaling, and do so without the potentially adverse effects associated with synthetic chemicals. We review examples of naturally occurring phytochemicals that may be applied to prevent cancer by antagonizing growth signaling, and propose one phytochemical for each pathway. These are: epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) for the Rb pathway, luteolin for p53, curcumin for PTEN, porphyrins for Hippo, genistein for GDF15, resveratrol for ARID1A, withaferin A for Notch and diguelin for the IGF1-receptor pathway. The coordination of anti-growth signaling and natural compound studies will provide insight into the future application of these compounds in the clinical setting.

Designing a broad-spectrum integrative approach for cancer prevention and treatment.

Targeted therapies and the consequent adoption of "personalized" oncology have achieved notable successes in some cancers; however, significant problems remain with this approach. Many targeted therapies are highly toxic, costs are extremely high, and most patients experience relapse after a few disease-free months. Relapses arise from genetic heterogeneity in tumors, which harbor therapy-resistant immortalized cells that have adopted alternate and compensatory pathways (i.e., pathways that are not reliant upon the same mechanisms as those which have been targeted). To address these limitations, an international task force of 180 scientists was assembled to explore the concept of a low-toxicity "broad-spectrum" therapeutic approach that could simultaneously target many key pathways and mechanisms. Using cancer hallmark phenotypes and the tumor microenvironment to account for the various aspects of relevant cancer biology, interdisciplinary teams reviewed each hallmark area and nominated a wide range of high-priority targets (74 in total) that could be modified to improve patient outcomes. For these targets, corresponding low-toxicity therapeutic approaches were then suggested, many of which were phytochemicals. Proposed actions on each target and all of the approaches were further reviewed for known effects on other hallmark areas and the tumor microenvironment. Potential contrary or procarcinogenic effects were found for 3.9% of the relationships between targets and hallmarks, and mixed evidence of complementary and contrary relationships was found for 7.1%. Approximately 67% of the relationships revealed potentially complementary effects, and the remainder had no known relationship. Among the approaches, 1.1% had contrary, 2.8% had mixed and 62.1% had complementary relationships. These results suggest that a broad-spectrum approach should be feasible from a safety standpoint. This novel approach has potential to be relatively inexpensive, it should help us address stages and types of cancer that lack conventional treatment, and it may reduce relapse risks. A proposed agenda for future research is offered.

KLF5 inhibits angiogenesis in PTEN-deficient prostate cancer by attenuating AKT activation and subsequent HIF1α accumulation.

BACKGROUND: KLF5 is a basic transcriptional factor that regulates multiple physiopathological processes. Our recent study showed that deletion of Klf5 in mouse prostate promotes tumorigenesis initiated by the deletion of Pten. While molecular characterization of Klf5-null tumors suggested that angiogenesis was partially responsible for tumor promotion, the precise function and mechanism of KLF5 deletion in prostate tumor angiogenesis remain unclear. RESULTS: Applying histological staining to Pten-null mouse prostates, we observed that deletion of Klf5 significantly increased the number of microvessels, accompanied by the upregulation of multiple angiogenesis-related genes based on microarray analysis with MetaCore software. In human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HuVECs), tube formation and migration, both of which are indicators of angiogenic activities, were decreased by conditioned media from PC-3 and DU 145 human prostate cancer cells with KLF5 overexpression, but increased by media from cells with KLF5 knockdown. HIF1α, a key angiogenesis inducer, was upregulated by KLF5 loss at the protein but not the mRNA level in both mouse tissues and human cell lines, as determined by immunohistochemical staining, real-time RT-PCR and Western blotting. Consistently, KLF5 loss also upregulated VEGF and PDGF, two pro-angiogenic mediators of HIF1α function, as analyzed by immunohistochemical staining in mouse tissues and ELISA in conditioned media. Mechanistically, AKT activity, which caused the accumulation of HIF1α, was increased by KLF5 knockout or knockdown but decreased by KLF5 overexpression. PI3K/AKT inhibitors consistently abolished the effects of KLF5 knockdown on angiogenic activity, HIF1α accumulation, and VEGF and PDGF expression. CONCLUSION: KLF5 loss enhances tumor angiogenesis by attenuating PI3K/AKT signaling and subsequent accumulation of HIF1α in PTEN deficient prostate tumors.

Interruption of KLF5 acetylation converts its function from tumor suppressor to tumor promoter in prostate cancer cells.

KLF5 possesses both tumor suppressing and tumor promoting activities, though the mechanism controlling these opposing functions is unknown. In cultured noncancerous epithelial cells, KLF5 converts from proproliferative to antiproliferative activity upon TGFß-induced acetylation, which sequentially alters the KLF5 transcriptional complex and the expression of genes such as p15 and MYC. In this study, we tested whether the acetylation status of KLF5 also determines its opposing functions in tumorigenesis using the PC-3 and DU 145 prostate cancer cell lines, whose proliferation is inhibited by TGFß. KLF5 inhibited the proliferation of these cancer cells, and the inhibition was dependent on KLF5 acetylation. MYC and p15 showed the same patterns of expression change found in noncancerous cells. In nude mice, KLF5 also suppressed tumor growth in an acetylation-dependent manner. Furthermore, deacetylation switched KLF5 to tumor promoting activity, and blocking TGFß signaling attenuated the tumor suppressor activity of KLF5. RNA sequencing and comprehensive data analysis suggest that multiple molecules, including RELA, p53, CREB1, MYC, JUN, ER, AR and SP1, mediate the opposing functions of AcKLF5 and unAcKLF5. These results provide novel insights into the mechanism by which KLF5 switches from antitumorigenic to protumorigenic function and also suggest the roles of AcKLF5 and unAcKLF5, respectively, in the tumor suppressing and tumor promoting functions of TGFß.

Genetic analysis and preliminary function study of miR-423 in breast cancer.

Common genetic variants (single nucleotide polymorphisms SNPs) in microRNA (miRNA) genes may alter their maturation or expression and play a role in the formation of human cancer. Recently, the association between the SNP rs6505162 in pre-miR-423 and cancer risk has been frequently evaluated in diverse populations and in a range of cancers. In this study, we determined the genotypes of SNP rs6505162 in 5 matched cell lines (breast cancer cell lines and their corresponding peripheral blood cell lines) and 114 matched clinical specimens (clinical breast carcinoma specimens and their corresponding normal tissues), compared the processing efficiency of pri-miRNA to mature forms between pre-miR-423-12C (wild-type) and pre-miR-423-12A (mutant-type) expression vectors, and evaluated the function of miR-423 on cell proliferation. Our data showed that two out of five breast cancer cell lines and 8.77 % (10/114) of tumors underwent somatic mutations of the rs6505162 SNP, and somatic mutation state was significantly correlated with the expression of clinicopathologic variables, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and mutant p53. The pre-miR-423-12C SNP blocked the endogenous processing of pri-miR-423 to its two mature miRNAs. Interestingly, selected pre-miR-423-12C stable cell population had lower proliferation ability than pre-miR-423-12A stable cell population. Moreover, miR-423 promoted cell proliferation in breast cancer cell lines through its miR-423-3p strand, not miR-423-5p. Taken together, these results suggest that the SNP rs6505162 in pre-miR-423 affects the mature miR expression, and miR-423 plays a potentially oncogenic role in breast tumorigenesis.

[Structure and biological functions of mammalian LEM-domain proteins].

During the process of open mitosis in higher eukaryotic cells, the nuclear envelope (NE) is disassembled and reassembled with highly organized and periodical dynamic morphological changes. Recent studies demonstrated that LEM-domain protein family mediates interactions among inner nuclear membrane, nuclear lamina protein and chromatin by interacting with barrier-to-autointegration-factor (BAF). The structure and function of the ternary complex formed by LEM-domain protein, nuclear lamina protein and BAF are dependent on each other. Moreover, the network formation based on this structure and function is critical for the development of basic biological processes of nuclear, and it plays important roles in chromatin separation in late metaphase and anaphase, NE reassembly after mitosis, morphological maintenance of nuclear and NE in interphase, regulation of DNA replication and DNA damage repair, regulation of gene expression and signaling pathway, and infection of retrovirus. Mutations in genes encoding LEM family proteins have important impacts on development and progression of laminopathic diseases and tumorigenesis. This review provides a detailed summary of structural and functional studies of the LEM family proteins.

Anticancer activities of PPARγ in breast cancer are context-dependent.

This Commentary highlights the article by Nakles et al, who described that PPARγ activation suppresses non-invasive tumor development and induces ER-positivity without affecting invasive tumor development.