Anthelmintic resistance in Swedish sheep flocks based on a comparison of the results from the faecal egg count reduction test and resistant allele frequencies of the beta-tubulin gene.

A faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) survey was conducted during the grazing season 2006 and 2007 to provide an updated indication of the prevalence of anthelmintic resistance in sheep flocks in Sweden. A total of 1330 faecal samples from 90 flocks on 45 farms, with a minimum of 20 ewes each, was collected by local sheep veterinarians. Per treatment group, approximately 15 lambs were dewormed either with oral suspensions of ivermectin (Ivomec vet.) or albendazole (Valbazen vet.). The efficacy on each farm was investigated either in 2006 or 2007 by faecal egg counts collected on the day of treatment and in a new sample from the same animals 7-10 days later. Third-stage larvae (L3) were initially identified morphologically from pooled cultures. These were then used as the source of genomic DNA template for two molecular tests. The first was a PCR-based test for specific identification of Haemonchus contortus, and the second was a Pyrosequencing assay for the analysis of benzimidazole (BZ) resistance targeting the P200 mutation in the parasite's beta-tubulin gene. Larval cultures indicated that Teladorsagia and Trichostrongylus were the predominant genera, but Haemonchus was diagnosed in 37% of the flocks. The PCR results revealed an almost 100% agreement with those farms that had previously been shown to have Haemonchus present, even when the % prevalence was low (approximately 3%). Only two (4%) of the surveyed farms showed evidence of BZ-resistant worm populations, with H. contortus being the species implicated according to post-treatment larval culture results. The Pyrosequencing assay detected BZ resistant allele frequencies of >40% in the Haemonchus-positive farms and 100% resistant alleles in the clinically most resistant farms. These preliminary results suggest that the FECRT is less sensitive than the molecular test at detecting BZ resistance. However, both tests need to be interpreted carefully, bearing in mind the relative proportions of species present and the starting egg and/or larval counts. Parasitological diagnosis of "clinical" resistance was also found against ivermectin in two flocks. However, both the pre-treatment FECs and the reductions in these were low, and only three lambs that had between 100 and 450 EPG after treatment were involved.

Standardization of the egg hatch test for the detection of benzimidazole resistance in parasitic nematodes.

The ability to reliably detect anthelmintic resistance is a crucial part of resistance management. If data between countries are to be compared, the same test should give the same results in each laboratory. As the egg hatch test for benzimidazole resistance is used for both research and surveys, the ability of different laboratories to obtain similar results was studied through testing of known isolates of cyathostomins, Haemonchus contortus, Ostertagia ostertagi, and Cooperia oncophora in programs supported by the EU (Cost B16 and FP6-PARASOL). Initial results showed difficulties in obtaining reproducible and similar data within and between laboratories. A series of ring tests, i.e., simultaneous and coordinated rounds of testing of nematode isolates in different laboratories was subsequently performed. By adopting identical protocols, especially the use of deionized water and making dilutions of thiabendazole in dimethyl sulfoxide in the final ring test, laboratories correctly identified both susceptible and resistant isolates. The protocols for the test and preparation of solutions of thiabendazole are described.

Detection and measurement of benzimidazole resistance alleles in Haemonchus contortus using real-time PCR with locked nucleic acid Taqman probes.

Benzimidazole resistance is a common problem in parasitic nematodes of ruminants and early detection is vital if its spread is to be monitored and controlled. Real time PCR offers a fast and reliable method for rapid detection and measurement of resistance allele frequencies. In Haemonchus contortus a single nucleotide polymorphism at codon 200 of the beta-tubulin gene (TTC to TAC), causing a phenylalanine to tyrosine amino acid substitution, has been shown to be involved in many cases of resistance. Locked nucleic acid (LNA) Taqman probes have been used in this work to detect and measure the frequency of resistance alleles in individual and multiple H. contortus. Detection of resistant genotypes using LNA Taqman probes in individual H. contortus is simpler and more reliable than with previously described assays. Measurement of the frequency of resistant alleles in populations of H. contortus was achieved by using the cycle threshold (C(t)) values and a standard curve derived from populations with known allele frequencies. Results using the LNA probes on individual and multiple worms gave similar results to the allele specific PCR. The sensitivity of the LNA assay on multiple nematodes allowed reliable detection of > or = 10% resistance allele frequency. Using the final fluorescence method, it was possible to differentiate populations with approximately 0, 5 and 10% resistance allele frequencies.

Pyrosequencing analysis of the beta-tubulin gene in Spanish Teladorsagia circumcincta field isolates.

Benzimidazole (BZ) resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes has been associated with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at codons 200, 167 and 198 in the beta-tubulin isotype 1 gene and, recently, these SNPs have also been found in macrocyclic lactone (ML) resistant strains of Haemonchus contortus. On this basis, we have studied the same putative SNPs in Spanish Teladorsagia circumcincta field isolates by pyrosequencing. Single L3 (infective 3rd stage larvae) from five sheep flocks were tested after confirming their BZ susceptibility and degree of ivermectin (IVM) resistance. According to the Faecal Egg Count Reduction Test (FECRT) one flock was classified as IVM susceptible, another one was resistant, and the rest had a suspicion of resistance to IVM. DNA extraction was carried out on 598 single L3 and 56% of these were identified as T. circumcincta after the amplification of a species-specific ITS2 fragment. The number of L3 analyzed for the SNPs 198/200 was 255 and for the SNP 167 was 187. Results clearly indicate no resistance-associated SNPs were present at any codon, before or after treatment. Therefore, all T. cicumcincta L3 were designated as susceptible homozygous genotypes for all SNPs. The absence of the mutations in these populations would argue against resistance haplotypes being present in the parasite population prior to drug treatment, at least in Spanish T. circumcincta.

Oral dosing with papaya latex is an effective anthelmintic treatment for sheep infected with Haemonchus contortus.

BACKGROUND: The cysteine proteinases in papaya latex have been shown to have potent anthelmintic properties in monogastric hosts such as rodents, pigs and humans, but this has not been demonstrated in ruminants. METHODS: In two experiments, sheep were infected concurrently with 5,000 infective larvae of Haemonchus contortus and 10,000 infective larvae of Trichostrongylus colubriformis and were then treated with the supernatant from a suspension of papaya latex from day 28 to day 32 post-infection. Faecal egg counts were monitored from a week before treatment until the end of the experiment and worm burdens were assessed on day 35 post-infection. RESULTS: We found that the soluble fraction of papaya latex had a potent in vivo effect on the abomasal nematode H. contortus, but not on the small intestinal nematode T. colubriformis. This effect was dose-dependent and at tolerated levels of gavage with papaya latex (117 µmol of active papaya latex supernatant for 4 days), the H. contortus worm burdens were reduced by 98%. Repeated treatment, daily for 4 days, was more effective than a single dose, but efficacy was not enhanced by concurrent treatment with the antacid cimetidine. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide support for the idea that cysteine proteinases derived from papaya latex may be developed into novel anthelmintics for the treatment of lumenal stages of gastro-intestinal nematode infections in sheep, particularly those parasitizing the abomasum.