An Experimental Test of the Relationship between Electronic Nicotine Delivery System Use and Alcohol Consumption.

BACKGROUND: Increasing research shows that the use of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) is associated with a higher rate and quantity of alcohol consumption. METHODS: The present study used a 2-session, within-subjects design to experimentally examine the relationship between ENDS use and laboratory ad libitum alcohol consumption. A total of N = 31 (mean age = 28.71, SD = 11.17; 45.2% women; 54.8% White/Caucasian) healthy adults from the community who use ENDS and endorsed liking beer completed the study, which included a beer consumption taste-test task that assessed the volume of beer consumed by the participants across 2 counterbalanced sessions: 1 in which concurrent ENDS use was allowed and 1 in which it was not. All analyses controlled for age, race, and gender. RESULTS: The effect of ENDS condition on the volume of beer consumed was not statistically significant, F(1, 30) = 0.03, p = 0.86). Results of linear mixed modeling showed that ENDS puffs were significantly related to alcohol sips (estimate = 0.23, SE = 0.07, p = 0.002) across the ad libitum session. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, ENDS use did not increase alcohol consumption; however, the data suggest that ENDS puffs might act as a prime for beer sips or that these 2 behaviors are linked through habit. Future studies should more fully measure and compare global and event-level data on ENDS and alcohol use as they might show disparate patterns of relationships.

Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood.

OBJECTIVE: Within the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality, negative urgency, positive urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation seeking dimensions have been linked to unique etiological mechanisms and outcomes. Yet, additional research is needed exploring direct relations among dimensions to determine how these relations may contribute to the nature of impulsive personality and its correlates. The current study used network analysis to clarify relations among UPPS-P dimensions and assess global robustness of these relations across young adulthood. METHOD: Participants included a longitudinal sample of 525 college students (48% male, 18-26 years) who completed the UPPS-P once per year for three consecutive years. RESULTS: Network structure was globally robust with particularly strong relations emerging between positive and negative urgency, as well as between lack of premeditation and lack of perseverance, across waves. Lack of premeditation consistently emerged as a central dimension. Additional analyses suggested lack of premeditation and sensation seeking as most robustly related with retrospectively reported frequency of alcohol use. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggested general robustness in the relations among impulsive personality dimensions, with relations involving lack of premeditation being particularly important for characterizing impulsive personality's nature. Sensation seeking and lack of premeditation may warrant particular focus when linking impulsive personality with frequency of alcohol use.

Alcohol-Induced Impairment of Balance is Antagonized by Energy Drinks.

BACKGROUND: The acute administration of alcohol reliably impairs balance and motor coordination. While it is common for consumers to ingest alcohol with other stimulant drugs (e.g., caffeine, nicotine), little is known whether prototypical alcohol-induced balance impairments are altered by stimulant drugs. The purpose of this study was to examine whether the coadministration of a high-caffeine energy drink with alcohol can antagonize expected alcohol-induced increases in body sway. METHODS: Sixteen social drinkers (of equal gender) participated in 4 separate double-blind dose administration sessions that involved consumption of alcohol and energy drinks, alone and in combination. Following dose administration, participants completed automated assessments of balance stability (both eyes open and eyes closed) measured using the Biosway Portable Balance System. Participants completed several subjective measures including self-reported ratings of sedation, stimulation, fatigue, and impairment. Blood pressure and pulse rate were recorded repeatedly. RESULTS: The acute administration of alcohol increased body sway, and the coadministration of energy drinks antagonized this impairment. When participants closed their eyes, alcohol-induced body sway was similar whether or not energy drinks were ingested. While alcohol administration increased ratings of sedation and fatigue, energy drink administration increased ratings of stimulation and reduced ratings of fatigue. Modest increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure following energy drink administration were also observed. CONCLUSIONS: Visual assessment of balance impairment is frequently used to indicate that an individual has consumed too much alcohol (e.g., as part of police-standardized field sobriety testing or by a bartender assessing when someone should no longer be served more alcohol). The current findings suggest that energy drinks can antagonize alcohol-induced increases in body sway, indicating that future work is needed to determine whether this observation regarding neuromotor functioning applies to alcohol in combination with all types of stimulant drugs.

Multisensory Stop Signals Can Reduce the Disinhibiting Effects of Alcohol in Adults.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol impairs drinkers' abilities to inhibit inappropriate responses. Certain stimulus conditions have been shown to facilitate behavioral control. Under conditions where individuals are presented with multiple inhibitory signals, the speed and consistency with which they are able to inhibit a response is improved. Recent research has shown that multisensory signals might protect against the disruptive effects of alcohol on mechanisms of behavioral control. This study examined whether multisensory stop signals can be used to improve inhibitory control, possibly by speeding attentional shifts toward inhibitory "stop" signals in the environment. METHODS: Twenty adult social drinkers performed a modified cued go/no-go task that measured the ability to inhibit prepotent responses following 0.64 g/kg alcohol and placebo. Response targets were presented as unimodal (visual) and as multisensory (visual + aural) stimuli. RESULTS: Results showed that during unimodal response target trials, participants made more inhibitory failures under 0.64 g/kg alcohol compared to placebo. During multisensory trials, however, there was no significant effect of alcohol on inhibitory control. CONCLUSIONS: These findings identify multisensory inhibitory signals as a potentially important environmental factor that can reduce the degree to which alcohol disinhibits behavior possibly by intersensory co-activation between the visual and auditory pathways.

Desire to Drink Alcohol is Enhanced with High Caffeine Energy Drink Mixers.

BACKGROUND: Consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) has been associated with a variety of risks beyond that observed with alcohol alone. Consumers of AmED beverages are more likely to engage in heavy episodic (binge) drinking. This study was to investigate whether the consumption of high caffeine energy drink mixers with alcohol would increase the desire to drink alcohol compared to the same amount of alcohol alone using a double-blind, within-subjects, placebo-controlled study design. METHODS: Participants (n = 26) of equal gender who were social drinkers attended 6 double-blind dose administration sessions that involved consumption of alcohol and energy drinks, alone and in combination. On each test day, participants received 1 of 6 possible doses: (i) 1.21 ml/kg vodka + 3.63 ml/kg decaffeinated soft drink, (ii) 1.21 ml/kg vodka + 3.63 ml/kg energy drink, (iii) 1.21 ml/kg vodka + 6.05 ml/kg energy drink, (iv) 3.63 ml/kg decaffeinated soft drink, (v) 3.63 ml/kg energy drink, and (vi) 6.05 ml/kg energy drink. Following dose administration, participants repeatedly completed self-reported ratings on the Desire-for-Drug questionnaire and provided breath alcohol readings. RESULTS: Alcohol alone increased the subjective ratings of "desire for more alcohol" compared to placebo doses. Energy drink mixers with the alcohol increased desire for more alcohol ratings beyond that observed with alcohol alone. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides laboratory evidence that AmED beverages lead to greater desire to drink alcohol versus the same amount of alcohol consumed alone. The findings are consistent with results from animal studies indicating that caffeine increases the rewarding and reinforcing properties of alcohol.

Alcohol cues impair learning inhibitory signals in beer drinkers.

BACKGROUND: Models of drug addiction emphasize the reciprocal influence of incentive-motivational properties of drug-related cues and poor impulse control resulting in drug use. Recent studies have shown that alcohol-related cues can impair response inhibition. What is unknown is whether these cues also disrupt learning of inhibitory associations. METHODS: Participants performed a conditioned inhibition (CI) task and were required to learn that a neutral image was a conditioned inhibitor when presented in the context of either an alcohol image intended to draw their attention away from the to-be-trained inhibitor, or a control condition in which the alcohol image was absent. After training, subjects in each condition rated the likelihood that the neutral image would signal the outcome. Eye tracking was used to verify that attention to the neutral image was in fact reduced when the alcohol image was present. RESULTS: Compared with controls those trained in the alcohol image condition reported a greater likelihood that the presence of the inhibitor would be followed by the outcome and thus were less able to acquire CI. Measures of eye tracking verified that attention to the alcohol cue was associated with this maladaptive behavior. CONCLUSIONS: When alcohol cues are present, there is a reduced ability to learn that such information is irrelevant to an outcome, and this impairs ones' ability to inhibit perseveration of a response. This has implications for persistence of a drinking episode.

Can the use of multiple stop signals reduce the disinhibiting effects of alcohol?

BACKGROUND: Research has consistently demonstrated that alcohol impairs the ability to divide attention across 2 or more stimuli. However, under certain circumstances, the presentation of multiple stimuli can actually facilitate performance. The "redundant signal effect" (RSE) refers to the phenomenon by which individuals respond more quickly and accurately when information is presented as redundant, bimodal stimuli (e.g., visually and aurally), rather than as a single stimulus presented to either modality alone. Recent work has shown that reaction time (RT) to redundant signals is hastened under alcohol, ameliorating the slowing effects of the drug. However, no research has examined whether RSE can reduce the impairing effects of alcohol on the ability to inhibit behavior. METHODS: This study examined whether the impairing effects of alcohol on inhibitory control might be altered by the presentation of redundant inhibitory signals. Inhibitory control was assessed by a go/no-go task which included single and redundant inhibitory signals. Performance was tested following placebo (0.0 g/kg) and alcohol (0.65 g/kg). The effect of redundant activation signals on alcohol impairment of response activation was also measured. RESULTS: The results showed evidence for RSE on the activation of behavior, but not for inhibitory control. Compared with placebo, alcohol slowed RT and reduced response inhibition. Redundant signals had a robust speeding effect on RT, even following alcohol. By contrast, redundant signals failed to improve inhibitory control following placebo or alcohol. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have important implications for understanding how drinkers respond to multimodal signals in their everyday environments and highlight the vulnerability of inhibitory control to alcohol's impairing effects.

Mixing an energy drink with an alcoholic beverage increases motivation for more alcohol in college students.

BACKGROUND: There has been a dramatic rise in the consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmEDs) in social drinkers. It has been suggested that AmED beverages might lead individuals to drink greater quantities of alcohol. This experiment was designed to investigate whether the consumption of AmEDs would alter alcohol priming (i.e., increasing ratings of wanting another drink) compared with alcohol alone. METHODS: Participants (n = 80) of equal gender attended 1 session where they were randomly assigned to receive 1 of 4 doses (0.91 ml/kg vodka, 1.82 ml/kg energy drink, 0.91 ml/kg vodka mixed with 1.82 ml/kg energy drink [AmED], or a placebo beverage). Alcohol-induced priming of the motivation to drink was assessed by self-reported ratings on the Desire for Drug questionnaire. RESULTS: The priming dose of alcohol increased the subjective ratings of "desire" for more alcohol, consistent with previous research that small doses of alcohol can increase the motivation to drink. Furthermore, higher desire ratings over time were observed with AmEDs compared with alcohol alone. Finally, ratings of liking the drink were similar for the alcohol and AmED conditions. CONCLUSIONS: An energy drink may elicit increased alcohol priming. This study provides laboratory evidence that AmED beverages may lead to greater motivation to drink versus the same amount of alcohol consumed alone.

Use of mindfulness training to improve BAC self-estimation during a drinking episode.

OBJECTIVE: Individuals are often inaccurate at estimating levels of intoxication following doses of alcohol. Previous research has shown that when required to estimate (BAC) at different time points, participants often underestimate their BACs and amounts of alcohol consumed. The present study aimed to increase drinkers' BAC estimation accuracy after drinking alcohol using mindfulness-based feedback to increase their awareness of the interoceptive cues associated with alcohol intoxication. METHOD: Thirty-three adults were given 0.65 g/kg of alcohol and received one of three training conditions: BAC feedback only, body scan exercise + BAC feedback and no treatment control. Those in the BAC feedback group received feedback concerning their observed BAC during dose exposure. Participants in the body scan group received BAC feedback and underwent a mindfulness exercise to enhance their perception of the acute subjective effects of alcohol. The control group received no BAC estimation training. Participants attended four study sessions: Two training sessions where participants underwent structured training based on their condition and two retention sessions to test for the lasting effects of the training exercises. RESULTS: Retention tests showed that participants in both treatment groups were most accurate in estimating their BACs. There were no differences among the groups in their perceived levels of intoxication at posttraining. The findings suggest that BAC feedback, alone and in combination with, mindfulness training can improve accuracy in estimating BACs. CONCLUSIONS: The findings provide preliminary support for the efficacy of mindfulness training in combination with BAC feedback to improve BAC estimation accuracy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Cognitive preoccupation with drinking and behavioral effects of alcohol as predictors of current consumption patterns.

BACKGROUND: Acute alcohol responses such as tolerance to alcohol-induced motor impairment and heightened sensitivity to alcohol-induced disinhibition are associated with heavier drinking. Additionally, certain cognitive characteristics may also indicate problem-drinking. For example, cognitive and emotional preoccupation (CEP) with alcohol is associated with heavier drinking. However, it is not clear if cognitive markers have value as predicators of heavier drinking beyond that of well-established alcohol response markers. The current study sought to test the predictive potential of CEP in the context of two well-documented alcohol response markers of heavy drinking. METHODS: Data aggregated from three studies comprised a sample of 94 young adult drinkers with no history of alcohol use disorder. Participants' motor coordination (grooved pegboard) and behavioral disinhibition (cued go/no-go) were assessed following consumption of 0.65g/kg alcohol and a placebo. CEP was measured via the Temptation and Restraint Inventory (TRI). RESULTS: Drinkers who expressed both alcohol response markers reported drinking higher doses regardless of their level of CEP. Among drinkers who expressed low sensitivity to both disinhibition and motor impairment, higher CEP was associated with higher typical quantities. Low sensitivity to motor impairment functioned as a standalone marker of heavier drinking. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that a combination of tolerance to motor impairment and high alcohol-induced disinhibition may be sufficient to promote heavier consumption even in the absence of cognitive markers associated with problem drinking. Results also suggest that cognitive characteristics may drive early drinking and contribute to the development of tolerance to acute alcohol effects.

Effect of menstrual cycle on rewarding properties of alcohol cues in women.

OBJECTIVE: Compared with men, women are disproportionately affected by alcohol, including greater risks of behavioral impairment and relapse from abstinence-based treatments. One potential mechanism underlying this disparity is ovarian hormone fluctuations across menstrual cycle phases, particularly estradiol (E2). Preclinical and clinical studies have shown that E2 levels positively correlate with alcohol consumption, suggesting E2 modulates drinking. Rewarding properties of alcohol are thought to mediate this relationship. The present study tested the degree to which women report increased rewarding effects from alcohol and heightened attention to alcohol-related cues when E2 was elevated during the late follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. METHOD: Fifty women aged 21-29 participated in a within-subjects placebo-controlled study examining how menstrual cycle phase alters the rewarding properties of alcohol and alcohol-associated cues when sober and intoxicated, as measured by their attentional bias toward alcohol-associated cues and subjective reports. Measures were obtained following 0.60 g/kg alcohol and placebo during the early follicular phase when E2 was low and the late follicular phase (i.e., ovulation) when E2 was elevated. RESULTS: Attentional bias to alcohol-associated cues was greater during the late follicular phase in both sober and intoxicated states. Women reported rewarding effects from alcohol, but no effects of phase were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that the rewarding properties of alcohol-associated cues might be enhanced during the late follicular phase of the menstrual cycle when E2 is elevated, possibly increasing the risk for excessive drinking in women during this phase. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Heightened motor impairment as a protective factor against heavy drinking in individuals with high alcohol-induced disinhibition.

BACKGROUND: Behavioral disinhibition and motor impairment are both acutely elevated following alcohol consumption, and individual differences in sensitivity to alcohol-induced increases in these effects are associated with drinking habits. Specifically, high alcohol-induced disinhibition and low motor impairment have been identified as separate markers for alcohol-related problems. This study tested the degree to which alcohol-induced disinhibition and motor impairment jointly predict heavy drinking. We hypothesized that heavier drinkers would exhibit a combination of high sensitivity to alcohol-induced disinhibition and low sensitivity to its motor impairing effect. METHODS: Data from three studies were aggregated to comprise a sample of 96 young adults. Participants' motor coordination (grooved pegboard) and behavioral disinhibition (cued go/no-go) were assessed following consumption of 0.65 g/kg alcohol and a placebo during separate sessions. RESULTS: As BAC was ascending, alcohol increased motor impairment and disinhibition compared to placebo. Combined effects at this time of alcohol on motor impairment and disinhibition predicted typical drinking habits. Specifically, a combination of high sensitivity to alcohol's disinhibiting effect and low sensitivity to its motor impairing effect was associated with heavy drinking. As BAC was descending, only reduced sensitivity to motor impairment remained as a predictor of heavy drinking. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that although motor impairment following alcohol consumption is associated with certain negative outcomes (e.g., increased risk for physical injury and motor vehicle accidents), such heightened motor impairment from alcohol may actually serve as a protective factor against the excessive drinking that can accompany the disinhibiting effect of alcohol.

Heightened sensitivity to the disinhibiting effect of alcohol in women during the late follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.

Compared with men, women are disproportionately affected by alcohol, including greater risks of physiological damage, behavioral impairment, and relapse. One likely mechanism underlying the sexual disparity in this vulnerability is the fluctuation of ovarian hormones, particularly estradiol (E2), across phases of the menstrual cycle. Several preclinical and clinical studies have shown that higher E2 levels positively correlate with drinking, suggesting E2 may play a significant role in modulating drinking. Inhibitory control also modulates drinking; when it is reduced or compromised by alcohol, the drinker's ability to stop the self-administration of alcohol could be impaired, leading to a binge episode. The present study aimed to examine the degree to which menstrual cycle phase can influence the disinhibiting effect of alcohol. Twenty-four healthy young adult women participated in a within-subjects placebo-controlled study of the acute disinhibiting effect of 0.60 g/kg alcohol over the course of two test sessions. A cued go/no-go task measured the disinhibiting effects of alcohol and placebo beverages during the early follicular phase of the cycle when E2 levels were low and the late follicular phase (i.e., ovulation) when E2 was elevated. Results showed that the disinhibiting effect of alcohol increased nearly twofold during the late follicular phase when E2 was elevated. These findings highlight the role of alcohol-induced disinhibition as a potential behavioral mechanism by which fluctuations in ovarian hormones as a function of the menstrual cycle contribute to increased risk for excessive alcohol use in women. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Sensitivity to the disinhibiting effect of alcohol: The role of trait impulsivity and sex differences.

[Clarification Notice: A clarification for this article was reported online in Psychology of Addictive Behaviors on Aug 18 2022 (see record 2022-92429-001). In the original article, simultaneous linear regression analyses examined the role of sex and trait impulsivity differences in participants' unintoxicated level of behavioral impulsivity and sensitivity to alcohol-induced increases in disinhibition. High levels of trait impulsivity were associated with higher unintoxicated disinhibition; however, no sex difference in this relationship was obtained. Similarly, high attention impulsivity was associated with elevated unintoxicated disinhibition, but no sex difference in this relationship was obtained. It is likely that the inclusion of participants with ADHD in the original analyses disproportionately accounted for the sex differences initially obtained. This reanalysis suggests that behavioral disinhibition serves as a broad indicator of trait impulsivity in both men and women.] Objective: Higher trait impulsivity is associated with more impulsive responding on certain behavioral measures of disinhibition. Additionally, behavioral disinhibition is acutely elevated following alcohol consumption. The present study examined the possibility that trait impulsivity may predict individual differences in sensitivity to the disinhibiting effect of alcohol. Specifically, the present study tested the hypothesis that those with elevated trait impulsivity also experience heightened sensitivity to the disinhibiting effect of alcohol, which might further compound their tendency toward impulsive action. METHOD: To test this hypothesis, data from six studies were aggregated to comprise a sample of 190 young adults. Participants completed the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11), and behavioral disinhibition was assessed using a cued go/no-go task following consumption of 0.65 g/kg alcohol and a placebo. RESULTS: Alcohol increased disinhibition overall, but higher impulsivity did not predict increased sensitivity to alcohol-induced disinhibition. In men, higher levels of trait impulsivity predicted heightened disinhibition in the unintoxicated state following placebo, but this relationship was not present in women. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest significant sex differences in the relationship between trait impulsivity and disinhibition. This sex difference may explain inconsistent research findings in studies assessing links between trait and behavioral measures of impulsivity. The data also point to trait impulsivity and sensitivity to alcohol-induced disinhibition as independent constructs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

"Sensitivity to the disinhibiting effect of alcohol: The role of trait impulsivity and sex differences": Clarification.

Reports a clarification to "Sensitivity to the disinhibiting effect of alcohol: The role of trait impulsivity and sex differences" by Holley C. Allen, Michael J. Wesley, Jessica Weafer and Mark T. Fillmore (Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, Advanced Online Publication, May 05, 2022, np). In the original article, simultaneous linear regression analyses examined the role of sex and trait impulsivity differences in participants' unintoxicated level of behavioral impulsivity and sensitivity to alcohol-induced increases in disinhibition. High levels of trait impulsivity were associated with higher unintoxicated disinhibition; however, no sex difference in this relationship was obtained. Similarly, high attention impulsivity was associated with elevated unintoxicated disinhibition, but no sex difference in this relationship was obtained. It is likely that the inclusion of participants with ADHD in the original analyses disproportionately accounted for the sex differences initially obtained. This reanalysis suggests that behavioral disinhibition serves as a broad indicator of trait impulsivity in both men and women. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2022-58551-001). OBJECTIVE: Higher trait impulsivity is associated with more impulsive responding on certain behavioral measures of disinhibition. Additionally, behavioral disinhibition is acutely elevated following alcohol consumption. The present study examined the possibility that trait impulsivity may predict individual differences in sensitivity to the disinhibiting effect of alcohol. Specifically, the present study tested the hypothesis that those with elevated trait impulsivity also experience heightened sensitivity to the disinhibiting effect of alcohol, which might further compound their tendency toward impulsive action. METHOD: To test this hypothesis, data from six studies were aggregated to comprise a sample of 190 young adults. Participants completed the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11), and behavioral disinhibition was assessed using a cued go/no-go task following consumption of 0.65 g/kg alcohol and a placebo. RESULTS: Alcohol increased disinhibition overall, but higher impulsivity did not predict increased sensitivity to alcohol-induced disinhibition. In men, higher levels of trait impulsivity predicted heightened disinhibition in the unintoxicated state following placebo, but this relationship was not present in women. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest significant sex differences in the relationship between trait impulsivity and disinhibition. This sex difference may explain inconsistent research findings in studies assessing links between trait and behavioral measures of impulsivity. The data also point to trait impulsivity and sensitivity to alcohol-induced disinhibition as independent constructs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of energy drinks mixed with alcohol on behavioral control: risks for college students consuming trendy cocktails.

BACKGROUND: There has been a dramatic rise in the consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) in young people. AmED have been implicated in risky drinking practices and greater accidents and injuries have been associated with their consumption. Despite the increased popularity of these beverages (e.g., Red Bull and vodka), there is little laboratory research examining how the effects of AmED differ from alcohol alone. This experiment was designed to investigate if the consumption of AmED alters neurocognitive and subjective measures of intoxication compared with the consumption of alcohol alone. METHODS: Participants (n=56) attended 1 session where they were randomly assigned to receive one of 4 doses (0.65 g/kg alcohol, 3.57 ml/kg energy drink, AmED, or a placebo beverage). Performance on a cued go/no-go task was used to measure the response of inhibitory and activational mechanisms of behavioral control following dose administration. Subjective ratings of stimulation, sedation, impairment, and level of intoxication were recorded. RESULTS: Alcohol alone impaired both inhibitory and activational mechanisms of behavioral control, as evidenced by increased inhibitory failures and increased response times compared to baseline performance. Coadministration of the energy drink with alcohol counteracted some of the alcohol-induced impairment of response activation, but not response inhibition. For subjective effects, alcohol increased ratings of stimulation, feeling the drink, liking the drink, impairment, and level of intoxication, and alcohol decreased the rating of ability to drive. Coadministration of the energy drink with alcohol increased self-reported stimulation, but resulted in similar ratings of the other subjective effects as when alcohol was administered alone. CONCLUSIONS: An energy drink appears to alter some of the objective and subjective impairing effects of alcohol, but not others. Thus, AmED may contribute to a high-risk scenario for the drinker. The mix of impaired behavioral inhibition and enhanced stimulation is a combination that may make AmED consumption riskier than alcohol consumption alone.

Defining "binge" drinking as five drinks per occasion or drinking to a .08% BAC: which is more sensitive to risk?

Heavy episodic or "binge" drinking is commonly defined as drinking 4-5 drinks per occasion (5/4 definition) or drinking that results in a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of .08%. The present study compared the validity of each binge definition as an indicator of at-risk, problem drinking. Two hundred and fifty-one college students were classified as nonbinge drinkers or as binge drinkers based on the 5/4 definition or the .08% BAC definition. The two definitions of binge drinking were examined in terms of their sensitivity and specificity as indicators of alcohol-related problems as determined by scores on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Over half the sample (56%) were at-risk drinkers according to the AUDIT. The .08% definition detected only one-half of these individuals. Gender differences were also evident. Female binge drinkers actually achieved significantly higher estimated BACs per episode than their male binge drinking counterparts. The findings suggest that drinking to a subthreshold BAC (ie, <.08%) is not sufficient to avoid alcohol-related problems, and that total quantity (ie, total standard drinks) per occasion might contribute to risk independent of the BAC achieved during drinking episodes. The findings also highlight the importance of considering frequency of consumption in determining risky drinking versus relying solely on quantity measures.

Acute rewarding and disinhibiting effects of alcohol as indicators of drinking habits.

RATIONALE: Laboratory studies have reliably shown that heightened sensitivity to the rewarding effects of alcohol is associated with heavier drinking patterns. More recently, there has been research to suggest that heightened sensitivity to the disinhibiting effects of alcohol might also contribute to drinking habits. Most research on the acute effects of alcohol has focused on drinking magnitudes averaged across participants with little attention paid to how individual differences influence alcohol abuse potential. In large part, this is due to limited sample sizes in previous laboratory studies. OBJECTIVES: This study overcomes previous limitations by testing the degree to which individual differences in acute sensitivity and tolerance to the rewarding and disinhibiting effects of alcohol relate to drinking behavior in a large sample size. METHODS: Data from six laboratory studies were aggregated to comprise a sample of 181 adults. Participants' level of "liking" (the effects of alcohol) and disinhibition were assessed following 0.65 g/kg alcohol once during the ascending limb of the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) curve and again at the same BAC during the descending limb of the curve. The measures were also assessed following placebo. RESULTS: Alcohol increased ratings of liking and behavioral disinhibition. Heavier drinking was associated with heightened sensitivity to liking on the ascending limb. Additionally, those who showed reduced acute tolerance to both disinhibition and liking were also heavier drinkers. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that individual variability in liking the effects of alcohol and persistent disinhibition are key indicators of drinking habits.

Acute alcohol effects on inhibitory control and implicit cognition: implications for loss of control over drinking.

Alcohol impairs inhibitory control, and it alters implicit alcohol cognitions including attentional bias and implicit associations. These effects are seen after doses of alcohol which do not lead to global impairments in cognitive performance. We review studies which demonstrate that the effects of alcohol on inhibitory control are associated with the ability of alcohol to prime alcohol-seeking behavior. We also hypothesize that alcohol-induced changes in implicit alcohol cognitions may partially mediate alcohol-induced priming of the motivation to drink. Based on contemporary theoretical models and conceptualizations of executive function, impulsivity, and the motivational salience of alcohol-related cues, we speculate on other aspects of cognition that may underlie alcohol's effects on alcohol seeking. Inconsistencies in existing research and priorities for future research are highlighted, including dose effects and the potential interactions between chronic heavy drinking and the acute effects of alcohol on these cognitive processes.

DUI offenders display reduced perception of intoxication and heightened impulsive choice in response to alcohol.

Driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol continues to be a major contributor in traffic fatalities. There is growing evidence for heightened trait impulsivity in DUI offenders, but little is known about how impulsivity could interact with alcohol intoxication in a manner that would increase the likelihood of driving while intoxicated. This placebo-controlled study examined the acute effects of 0.65g/kg alcohol on 2 facets of impulsivity (impulsive choice and response inhibition), simulated risky driving behavior, and subjective intoxication in a group of 20 DUI offenders and 20 control drivers with no history of DUI. It was predicted that compared with controls, DUI offenders would self-report greater impulsivity, and display greater impulsive choice and driver risk taking, particularly in response to alcohol. Results showed that alcohol impaired drivers' inhibitory control and increased their impulsive choice behavior and risky driving behavior. Alcohol selectively increased impulsive choice of DUI offenders, as control drivers showed no alcohol-induced increase in their impulsive choices. Results also showed that, compared with controls, offenders reported feeling less intoxicated and were more willing to drive after drinking. Laboratory studies are beginning to show that DUI offenders differ from nonoffenders in their acute responses to alcohol. This study identified two alcohol response characteristics of DUI offenders that indicate their lack of risk awareness during intoxication: heightened impulsivity and reduced subjective intoxication. Strategies and treatments to alter these response characteristics in DUI offenders could enhance their risk awareness during the intoxicated state and possibly reduce risk of DUI recidivism. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).