Rickettsia africae and Novel Rickettsial Strain in Amblyomma spp. Ticks, Nicaragua, 2013.

We report molecular detection of Rickettsia africae in Amblyomma ovale ticks from Nicaragua and a novel rickettsial strain in an A. triste tick. Of 146 ticks from dogs, 16.4% were Rickettsia PCR positive. The presence of Rickettsia spp. in human-biting ticks in Nicaragua may pose a public health concern.

Amphotericin B concentrations in healthy mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) following a single intratracheal dose of liposomal amphotericin B using an atomizer.

Aspergillosis is a fungal infection that primarily affects the respiratory tract. Amphotericin B has broad antifungal activity and is commonly used to treat aspergillosis, a fungal pneumonia that is a common sequela in oiled waterfowl as well as other birds in wildlife rehabilitation. Pharmacokinetic parameters of nebulized amphotericin B in an avian model have been reported, but those of direct intratracheal delivery have yet to be established. The objective of this study was to evaluate if a single 3 mg/kg dose of liposomal amphotericin B delivered intratracheally using a commercial atomizer would achieve plasma and lung tissue concentrations exceeding targeted minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) for Aspergillus species in adult mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). Following intratracheal delivery, amphotericin B was present in lung parenchyma at concentrations above the targeted MIC of 1 µg/g for up to 9 days post-administration; however, distribution of the drug was uneven, with the majority of the drug concentrated in one lung lobe. Concentrations in the contralateral lung lobe and the kidneys were above the targeted MIC 1 day after administration but declined exponentially with a half-life of approximately 2 days. Plasma concentrations were never above the targeted MIC. Histological examination of the trachea, bronchi, lungs, heart, liver, and kidneys did not reveal any toxic changes. Using a commercial atomizer, intratracheal delivery of amphotericin B at 3 mg/kg resulted in lung parenchyma concentrations above 1 µg/ml with no discernable systemic effects. Further studies to establish a system of drug delivery to both sides of the pulmonary parenchyma need to be performed, and the efficacy of this treatment for disease prevention remains to be determined.

INTRAVENOUS REGIONAL ANTIBIOTIC PERFUSION THERAPY AS AN ADJUNCTIVE TREATMENT FOR DIGITAL LESIONS IN SEABIRDS.

Foot infections are a common problem among seabirds in wildlife rehabilitation. Pododermatitis and digital infections are often challenging to treat because of the presence of suboptimal substrates, abnormal weight-bearing due to injuries, and suboptimal nutritional or health status. Seabirds represent the majority of animals requiring rehabilitation after oil spills, and foot problems are a common reason for euthanasia among these birds. Antibiotic intravenous regional perfusion therapy is frequently used in humans and other species to treat infections of the distal extremities, but it has not been evaluated in seabirds. During the 2015 Refugio oil spill response, four birds with foot lesions (pododermatitis, osteomyelitis, or both) were treated with ampicillin/sulbactam administered intravenously to the affected limb(s) in addition to systemic antibiotics and anti-inflammatories. Three of the birds, all brown pelicans ( Pelecanus occidentalis ) recovered rapidly and were released. Two of these birds had acute pododermatitis and were treated once with intravenous regional perfusion. They were released approximately 3 wk after the perfusion therapy. The third pelican had osteomyelitis of a digit. It was treated twice with intravenous regional perfusion and was released about 1 mo after the initial perfusion therapy. The fourth bird, a Pacific loon ( Gavia pacifica ), was treated once with perfusion therapy but did not respond to treatment and was euthanatized. No serious adverse effects were observed. This technique should be explored further in avian species.

Morbidity and Mortality of Birds of Prey Admitted to Rehabilitation Centers for Barbed Wire Injuries, New Mexico, USA, 2016-2021.

Interest in the role of fences in wildlife movement and injuries is growing, especially in the western US, where many miles of barbed wire fences crisscross the landscape. However, literature is limited on the effect of barbed wire on avian populations. From 2016 to 2021, six New Mexico, USA, rehabilitation centers accepted 49 raptors injured by barbed wire. Eight species were represented; the majority were Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus). Other owls, buteos, and a single falcon were also affected. Most of the injured birds came from counties with low human population density. The injuries tended to be severe, and most birds died or were euthanized; 11 survived, and only eight birds were released. During the study period, barbed wire injuries accounted for over 12% of Great-horned Owl admissions to rehabilitation centers and 7% of all owl admissions. At one New Mexican wildlife rehabilitation center, raptors admitted for barbed wire-associated injuries were more likely to die or be euthanized compared with those admitted for other reasons. Given the welfare effects to these birds, more research is needed to determine whether wildlife-friendly fence modifications, such as a smooth top wire or rail, would mitigate injuries to birds of prey.

Evaluation of passive transfer in captive greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros).

Failure of passive transfer (FPT) in captive greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) calves can lead to increased morbidity and mortality. In this retrospective study, serum samples from neonatal kudu calves were tested for immunoglobulin using different tests validated for domestic ruminants, including measurement of gamma globulin (GG) measured by protein electrophoresis, total solids (TS) measured by calibrated refractometry, total protein (TP) and globulins measured by colorimetry, gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT), and the zinc sulfate turbidity test (ZSTT). In a logistic regression model, TP, TS, globulins, and the natural log transform of GGT were the only significant parameters associated with FPT. Various historic parameters related to the dam, as well as calf weight, sex, glucose, and packed cell volume, were not significant. Based on the results, FPT in greater kudu is defined as GG of < 0.5 g/dl, a value lower than that in domestic cattle. TS measured by refractometry has an 80% sensitivity and a 100% specificity for FPT in greater kudu. With FPT defined as GG < 0.5 g/dl, kudu calves with a TS < 4.8 g/dl and a negative ZSTT have an increased probability of requiring medical intervention and additional diagnostics may be warranted.

POSTRELEASE SURVIVAL OF CALIFORNIA BROWN PELICANS (PELECANUS OCCIDENTALIS CALIFORNICUS) FOLLOWING OILING AND REHABILITATION AFTER THE REFUGIO OIL SPILL.

Oil spills represent a continued threat to marine wildlife. Although the public expects, and the State of California, US requires, oiled animals to be rescued for rehabilitation and release, scientists have questioned the welfare and conservation value of capture and rehabilitation of oiled wildlife, based on poor postrelease survival documented in the few available studies. In May 2015, Plains Pipeline 901 spilled >100,000 gallons of oil near Refugio State Beach, California. Many California Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis californicus) were oiled; capture and rehabilitation efforts began within 1 d. Ultimately, 65 live birds were captured, including 50 pelicans. Forty-six pelicans survived and were released. Of these, 12 adults (six male, six female) were fitted with solar-powered GPS satellite Platform Terminal Transmitters (PTT) and released in June 2015. In early July, we captured eight adult (three male, four female, one unknown), unoiled pelicans from the Ventura, California area. These control birds were similarly instrumented and released immediately. At 6 mo after release, PTTs from nine of 12 oiled pelicans and six of eight control pelicans were still transmitting; at 1 yr, those numbers decreased to two of 12 and two of eight, respectively. Survival analysis revealed no difference in survival between oiled and control birds. Although our sample size is limited, these data demonstrate that most oiled and rehabilitated pelicans can survive for 6 mo following release, and some individuals can survive over 1 yr.

Health assessment of free-ranging three-banded (Tolypeutes matacus) and nine-banded (Dasypus novemcinctus) armadillos in the Gran Chaco, Bolivia.

The Gran Chaco, Bolivia, has a total of seven species of armadillos with the three-banded (Tolypeutes matacus) and nine-banded (Dasypus novemcinctus) the most commonly hunted by the local Isoseño-Guarani people. Armadillos are known carriers of zoonotic pathogens, including Mycobacterium leprae, Toxoplasma gondii, and Trypanosoma cruzi; thus human handling and consumption of these species may have a significant public health impact. A health assessment that included physical examinations, hematology, plasma biochemical analyses, levels of exposure to selected infectious agents, and endoparasite and ectoparasite identification was performed on nine-banded and three-banded armadillos in the Gran Chaco, Bolivia. Based on clinical findings, the general health of these armadillos was rated as good. However, many of the nine-banded armadillos (64%) had abrasions and wounds, probably related to the capture method. The blood value results from a subset of these armadillos are presented as baseline values for free-ranging populations of both these species in Bolivia. Serologic antibody tests for M. leprae were negative in three-banded (n = 8) and nine-banded (n = 2) armadillos. Three-banded armadillos were antibody positive for Eastern equine encephalitis virus (8/8; 100%) and Saint Louis encephalitis virus (5/8; 62.5%). Two of 12 (16.7%) three-banded armadillos tested were antigen positive for Dirofilaria immitis. Nine-banded armadillos were antibody positive for T. gondii (3/9; 33.3%), Eastern equine encephalitis virus (5/8; 62.5%), and T. cruzi (2/9; 22.2%). Two of eight (25%) nine-banded armadillos were antigen positive for D. immitis. A number of endo- and ectoparasites were identified in/on both species of armadillos. Results from this study support the possibility that the handling and consumption of these species by the local Isoseño-Guarani people may have a public health impact.

Medical and surgical management of otitis in captive bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus).

Six cases of severe otitis media-interna, an uncommon problem in nondomestic ruminants, were diagnosed in five captive bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus). The cases were geographically clustered at zoological facilities in Florida. A visible ear droop, head shaking, and otic discharge were common at clinical presentation. Medical management with prolonged systemic and topical antimicrobial therapy, combined with repeated manual removal of debris from the otic canal, was successful in resolving two cases and effectively controlled a third case. Two bongo with severe otitis did not respond to medical management and required surgical intervention. A bulla osteotomy and total ear canal ablation were performed on these animals (bilaterally in one bongo). Surgery was successful in providing complete clinical resolution of the otitis and is recommended for severe cases that fail to respond to less invasive management.

Hematology and absence of hemoparasites in breeding common terns (Sterna hirundo) from Cape Cod, Massachusetts.

In June and July 1995, 98 breeding common terns (Sterna hirundo) were captured, weighed, and bled as a part of ongoing research on the population health and reproductive biology of this species of special concern. Packed cell volume, total and differential white blood cell counts, and blood smears were obtained. Blood smears from 75 terns were examined. No hemoparasites were found. There were some significant differences among hematologic parameters in birds from different islands, and between birds nesting earlier versus later in the season, but there were no significant differences associated with body mass, sex, or age. The absence of hemoparasites in the blood smears of these terns is noteworthy, especially because other studies of seabirds (including Charadriiformes) have revealed low prevalences of hematozoa.

Giardia Infection and Trypanosoma Cruzi Exposure in Dogs in the Bosawás Biosphere Reserve, Nicaragua.

Indigenous Mayangna and Miskitu inhabit Nicaragua's remote Bosawás Biosphere Reserve, located in the North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region. They are sedentary horticulturists who supplement their diet with wild game, hunting with the assistance of dogs. To test whether hunting dogs increased the risk of human exposure to protozoal zoonotic neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), we sampled dogs from three communities varying in population size and level of contact with other communities. We screened dog feces (n = 58) for Giardia and Cryptosporidium DNA and sera (n = 78) for Trypanosoma cruzi antibodies and DNA. Giardia DNA was detected in 22% (13/58) of samples; sequencing revealed the presence of both zoonotic genotypes (assemblages A and B) and dog-specific genotypes (assemblages C and D). Giardia shedding was associated with community and age. Older dogs and those in the two, more accessible communities had greater odds of shedding parasites. Seroprevalence of T. cruzi antibodies, indicating prior exposure, was 9% (7/78). These results contribute to the limited literature on NTDs in indigenous populations, and suggest hunting dogs can both serve as sentinels of environmental NTDs and pose zoonotic risk for their owners and communities.

Antibiotic intravenous regional perfusion for successful resolution of distal limb infections: two cases.

Intravenous regional perfusion is a common technique for treating infections of the extremities in humans and horses. It has the advantage of achieving very high antibiotic concentrations in affected tissues. This technique was used to clinically resolve deep, mixed infections involving bones and joints in a swamp wallaby and a lesser kudu. Both infections were severe and considered life-threatening, because amputation was not feasible, systemic antibiotic treatment had failed, and both animals were in pain and had evidence of the systemic effects of the infections. In the wallaby, once daily treatments with imipenem for 5 days resulted in a return to normal function within 1 mo. In the kudu, four treatments using both ampicillin/sulbactam followed by enrofloxacin were performed every 2 days, followed by two treatments with ampicillin/sulbactam alone 2 wk later. Resolution of this case was achieved in less than 2 mo. The only adverse effect noted was phlebitis in the kudu, which resolved with conservative therapy. Healing was rapid in both cases and was apparent after two treatments. This report demonstrates the efficacy and flexibility of intravenous regional perfusion for the treatment of severe infections of the digits in nondomestic species.

Cardiac evaluation of anesthetized Grevy's zebras (Equus grevyi).

OBJECTIVE: To determine ECG and echocardiographic measurements in healthy anesthetized Grevy's zebras (Equus grevyi). ANIMALS: 20 healthy zebras. PROCEDURES: Auscultation, base-apex ECG, and echocardiography were performed on anesthetized zebras. RESULTS: Low-grade systolic murmurs were detected in the left basilar region in 4 of 20 zebras. Evaluation of ECGs from 19 zebras revealed sinus rhythm with a predominantly negative QRS complex and a mean +/- SD heart rate of 67 +/- 10 beats/min. Echocardiograms of sufficient image quality were obtained for 16 zebras. Interventricular septal thickness in diastole, left ventricular chamber in diastole and systole, left atrial diameter, and left ventricular mass were significantly and moderately correlated with estimated body weight (r values ranged from 0.650 to 0.884). Detectable swirling of blood in the right and sometimes the left ventricles was detected in 9 of 16 zebras, whereas physiologic regurgitation of blood was detected for the aortic valve in 3 zebras, pulmonary valve in 2 zebras, mitral valve in 2 zebras, and tricuspid valve in 1 zebra. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results of this study provide reference information for use in the cardiac evaluation of anesthetized Grevy's zebras.

Serosurvey of small carnivores in the Bolivian Chaco.

Five species of Bolivian carnivores, including nine Geoffroy's cats (Oncifelis geoffroyi), ten ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), one jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi), nine pampas foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus), and five crab-eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous) were sampled between March 2001 and April 2005 and tested for antibodies to common pathogens of domestic carnivores. Carnivores were trapped in three areas: a village, the region between human settlements and a protected area, and within Kaa-Iya National Park, Bolivia. Antibodies to canine distemper virus were detected in ocelots and pampas foxes. Antibodies to canine parvovirus were detected in pampas foxes and crab-eating foxes. Geoffroy's cats and all of the ocelots tested positive for antibodies to feline calicivirus (FCV), while fewer than half of Geoffroy's cats and no ocelots had antibodies to feline panleukopenia (FPV). These results confirm that these species of Bolivian carnivores are not naïve to common pathogens of domestic carnivores, and seropositive animals were found in villages as well as in the national park.

Surgical and medical management of a uterine spindle cell tumor in an African hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris).

A 5-yr-old female African hedgehog (Ateleris albiventris) presented with hematuria. Vulvar culture results revealed a 4+ growth of Enterococcus sp. and gamma-Streptococcus sp. susceptible to trimethoprim sulfa and enrofloxacin. Ultrasound evaluation of the abdomen revealed an unidentifiable tubular structure in the region of the reproductive tract. An exploratory laparotomy and ovariohysterectomy were performed. Pathologic studies of the uterus showed a uterine spindle cell tumor, uterine endometrial polyp, uterine adenomyosis, and a possible acute infarct resulting in uterine wall necrosis. Hematuria did not reoccur, and the hedgehog lived for another 19 mo until she died from an oral squamous cell carcinoma. To date, this is the first report of a uterine spindle cell tumor in an African hedgehog.

Diagnosis and treatment of presumptive postobstructive pulmonary edema in a Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi).

A free-ranging, adult male Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) was immobilized and evaluated for hematuria following routine capture. Prior to anesthetic recovery, the panther was fitted with a telemetry collar. After an initially quiet recovery, the panther began thrashing in the transport cage, and was again immobilized. Pink foam was evident from the nostrils, and crackles were ausculted over the chest, indicating pulmonary edema. Postobstructive pulmonary edema was diagnosed based on history, clinical signs, radiographic evaluation, and blood gas analysis. The animal was treated intensively for several hours with diuretics, oxygen, and manual ventilation. The panther responded rapidly to therapy and was released back into the wild 48 hr after presentation. Postobstructive pulmonary edema, also called negative-pressure pulmonary edema, may be underrecognized in veterinary medicine. In this case, the telemetry collar, in conjunction with anesthetic recovery in a small transport crate, may have contributed to tracheal obstruction. Wildlife veterinarians and biologists should be aware of the risk of airway obstruction when placing tracking collars, and animals should be continuously monitored during anesthetic recovery to ensure the presence of a patent airway.

Multiple-host pathogens in domestic hunting dogs in Nicaragua's Bosawás Biosphere Reserve.

Nicaragua's Bosawás Biosphere Reserve is a vast forested area inhabited largely by indigenous Mayangna and Miskitu people. Most Bosawás residents rely on subsistence hunting and swidden agriculture, and hunting dogs are important for finding and securing wild game. We investigated the health of hunting dogs in three communities differing in location, size, and economy. Dogs in all communities were nutritionally compromised and experienced a heavy burden of disease. Seroprevalence of canine distemper, canine parvovirus, Rickettsia rickettsii, and Leptospira spp. exceeded 50% of dogs. At least one dog was actively shedding leptospires in urine, and many dogs were anemic and/or dehydrated. These dogs interact with wildlife in the forest and humans and domestic livestock in the communities, and may therefore serve as sources of zoonotic and wildlife diseases. Bosawás represents one of the largest intact tracts of habitat for jaguars (Panthera onca) in Central America, and given that these communities are located within the forest, jaguars may be at risk from disease spillover from hunting dogs. Dog owners reported that four of 49 dogs had been attacked and killed by jaguars in the past year, and that retaliatory killing of jaguars was sometimes practiced. Disease spillover from dogs to wildlife could occur both in the course of dogs' hunting activities as well as during jaguar attacks. A better understanding of dog depredation by jaguars, pathogen exposure in jaguars, and a management strategy for the hunting dog population, are urgently needed to mitigate these dual threats to jaguars, improve the lives of hunting dogs, and safeguard the health of their owners.

Parasites of free-ranging small canids and felids in the Bolivian Chaco.

Parasite surveys of free-ranging wildlife provide important information for monitoring population health. Between March 2001 and March 2003, we sampled 10 ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), eight Geoffroy's cats (Oncifelis geoffroyi), a jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi), five pampas foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus), and three crab-eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous) at three sites in the Bolivian Chaco. The objective of the study was to survey the parasite fauna of these carnivores and compare prevalence of parasites among the sites. The parasite community of these carnivores was diverse, with representatives from eight genera of nematodes, two families of cestodes, two protozoan species, and six arthropod species. Fecal parasites identified from 12 of the 13 felids and five of the six canids examined included Aelurostrongylus abstrusus, Ancylostoma tubaeforme, Uncinaria sp., Crenosoma sp., Toxocara cati, Spirurida, Capillaria aerophila, Spirometra sp., Taeniidae, and Cystoisospora sp. Four tick species, Amblyomma parvum, A. tigrinum, A. ovale, and A. cajennense, and two flea species, Pulex irritans and Delostichus phyllotis, were identified. Two crab-eating foxes had serologic evidence of heartworm disease (HWD). Antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii were found in 15 of 26 animals. Although HWD was found only in canids inside the national park, parasite prevalence did not appear to differ among sites, and no evidence was found of parasite spillover from domestic to wild carnivores.

Medical management of Toxoplasma meningitis in a white-throated capuchin (Cebus capucinus).

A 32-yr-old white-throated capuchin monkey (Cebus capucinus) was presented for paraparesis. A diagnosis of protozoal meningitis was made on the basis of a lymphocytic pleocytosis with elevated protein in cerebrospinal fluid and a positive serum titer to Toxoplasma gondii of 131,072 using an indirect hemagglutination test. Treatment with clindamycin and trimethaprim-sulfamethoxazole resulted in improvement within 3 days and complete clinical resolution within 2 wk.

BEST-PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR FIELD-BASED SURGERY AND ANESTHESIA OF FREE-RANGING WILDLIFE. I. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA.

Field anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive and noninvasive procedures on wild animals. We describe basic principles of safe anesthetic delivery, monitoring, and recovery for application in procedures involving free-ranging wildlife. For invasive procedures, the potential for immediate and lasting pain must be addressed and appropriate analgesia provided. In situations where the minimum standard of safe anesthesia and effective analgesia cannot be provided, the investigator and approving bodies should rigorously evaluate the risk to the patient against the value of the data obtained. This document is intended to serve as a resource for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees, biologists, veterinarians, and other researchers planning projects that involve free-ranging wildlife in field conditions.