Reconsidering humaneness.

Animal welfare is increasingly important in the understanding of how human activity affects wildlife, but the conservation community is still grappling with meaningful terminology when communicating this aspect of their work. One example is the use of the terms "humane" and "inhumane." These terms are used in scientific contexts, but they also have legal and social definitions. Without reference to a defined technical standard, describing an action or outcome as humane (or inhumane) constrains science communication because the terms have variable definitions; establish a binary (something is either humane or inhumane); and imply underlying values reflecting a moral prescription. Invoking the term "humane," and especially the strong antithesis "inhumane," can infer a normative judgment of how animals ought to be treated (humane) or ought not to be treated (inhumane). The consequences of applying this terminology are not just academic. Publicizing certain practices as humane can create blurred lines around contentious animal welfare questions and, perhaps intentionally, defer scrutiny of actual welfare outcomes. Labeling other practices as inhumane can be used cynically to erode their public support. We suggest that, if this normative language is used in science, it should always be accompanied by a clear, contextual definition of what is meant by humane.

Reconsideración de la Condición Humana Resumen El bienestar animal es cada vez más importante para el entendimiento de cómo la actividad humana afecta a la fauna, pero la comunidad conservacionista todavía lucha con la terminología significativa cuando comunica este aspecto de su trabajo. Un ejemplo es el uso de los términos humano e inhumano. Estos términos se usan dentro de contextos científicos, pero también cuentan con definiciones sociales y legales. Sin la referencia a un estándar técnico definido, la descripción de una acción o resultado como humano (o inhumano) restringe la comunicación de la ciencia pues estos términos tienen definiciones variables; establecen una opción binaria (algo sólo es humano o sólo es inhumano); e implican valores subyacentes que reflejan una prescripción moral. La invocación del término humano, y especialmente su fuerte antítesis inhumano, puede inferir un juicio normativo sobre cómo los animales deberían ser tratados (humano) o no deberían ser tratados (inhumano). Las consecuencias de aplicar esta terminología no son sólo académicas. La divulgación de ciertas prácticas como humanas puede generar confusión entorno a preguntas polémicas sobre el bienestar animal y, tal vez de manera intencional, aplazar el escrutinio de los resultados actuales para el bienestar. Al contrario, la denominación de otras prácticas como inhumanas puede usarse cínicamente para menoscabar el apoyo público que reciben. Sugerimos que, si se utiliza este lenguaje normativo en la ciencia, siempre debería estar acompañado de una definición clara y contextual de a lo que se refiere con el término humano.

Residue profiles of brodifacoum in coastal marine species following an island rodent eradication.

The second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide brodifacoum is an effective tool for the eradication of invasive rodents from islands and fenced sanctuaries, for biodiversity restoration. However, broadcast application of brodifacoum bait on islands may expose non-target wildlife in coastal marine environments to brodifacoum, with subsequent secondary exposure risk for humans if such marine wildlife is harvested for consumption. We report a case study of monitoring selected marine species following aerial application of brodifacoum bait in August 2011 to eradicate Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from Ulva Island, New Zealand. Residual concentrations of brodifacoum were detected in 3 of 10 species of coastal fish or shellfish sampled 43-176d after bait application commenced. Residual brodifacoum concentrations were found in liver, but not muscle tissue, of 2 of 24 samples of blue cod (0.026 and 0.092 µg/g; Parapercis colias) captured live then euthanized for tissue sampling. Residual brodifacoum concentrations were also found in whole-body samples of 4 of 24 mussels (range=0.001-0.022 µg/g, n=4; Mytilus edulis) and 4 of 24 limpets (range=0.001-0.016 µg/g, n=4; Cellana ornata). Measured residue concentrations in all three species were assessed as unlikely to have eventually caused mortality of the sampled individuals. We also conducted a literature review and determined that in eleven previous accounts of residue examination of coastal marine species following aerial applications of brodifacoum bait, including our results from Ulva Island, the overall rate of residue detection was 5.6% for marine invertebrates (11 of 196 samples tested) and 3.1% for fish (2 of 65 samples tested). Furthermore, our results from Ulva Island are the first known detection of brodifacoum residue in fish liver following an aerial application of brodifacoum bait. Although our findings confirm the potential for coastal marine wildlife to be exposed to brodifacoum following island rodent eradications using aerial bait application, the risk of mortality to exposed individual fish or shellfish appears very low. There is also a very low risk of adverse effects on humans that consume fish or shellfish containing residual concentrations in the ranges reported here. Furthermore, any brodifacoum residues that occur in marine wildlife decline to below detectable concentrations over a period of weeks. Thus potential human exposure to brodifacoum through consumption of marine wildlife containing residual brodifacoum could be minimized by defining 'no take' periods for harvest following bait application and regular monitoring to confirm the absence of detectable residues in relevant marine wildlife.

Anticoagulant Rodenticides, Islands and Animal Welfare Accountancy.

Anticoagulant rodenticides are used to manage rodents in domestic, municipal, agricultural, and conservation settings. In mammals and birds, anticoagulant poisoning causes extensive hemorrhagic disruption, with the primary cause of death being severe internal bleeding occurring over days. The combined severity and duration of these effects represent poor welfare outcomes for poisoned animals. Noting a lack of formal estimates of numbers of rodents and nontarget animals killed by anticoagulant poisoning, the ready availability and worldwide use of anticoagulants suggest that very large numbers of animals are affected globally. Scrutiny of this rodent control method from scientific, public, and regulatory perspectives is being driven largely by mounting evidence of environmental transfer of residual anticoagulants resulting in harmful exposure in wild or domestic animals, but there is also nascent concern for the welfare of targeted rodents. Rodent control incurs a cumulative ledger of animal welfare costs over time as target populations reduced by poisoning eventually recover to an extent requiring another reduction. This 'rolling toll' presents a critical contrast to the animal welfare accountancy ledger for eradication scenarios, where rodent populations can be completely removed by methods including anticoagulant use and then kept from coming back (e.g., on islands). Successful eradications remove any future need to control rodents and to incur the associated animal welfare costs.

Welfare Impacts of Pindone Poisoning in Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

Control methods used to manage unwanted impacts of the European rabbit in Australia and New Zealand include the use of toxic bait containing the anticoagulant pindone. Towards increased certainty in evaluating the animal welfare impacts of pindone poisoning in rabbits, we recorded behavioral and post-mortem data from rabbits which ingested lethal quantities of pindone bait in a laboratory trial. Pindone poisoning in rabbits resulted in welfare compromise, primarily through functional impairments related to internal haemorrhage over a maximum duration of 7 days. Applying this data to a formal assessment framework for ranking animal welfare impacts indicated that pindone had relatively high severity and also duration of welfare impacts in comparison to other rabbit control methods.

Ecotoxicity of sodium fluoroacetate (compound 1080) to soil organisms.

Sodium fluoroacetate (compound 1080) is applied as a vertebrate pesticide in New Zealand for control of introduced mammalian pests. Despite its widespread use, little is known about the soil ecotoxicity of 1080. Therefore, the hazard of 1080 to soil invertebrates, plants, and soil microorganisms was evaluated in a series of controlled laboratory tests. No earthworm (Eisenia fetida) mortality was reported with 1080 exposures up to 865 mg/kg soil. The lowest-observable-effect concentration and the median effect level for earthworm reproduction were 100 and 90 mg/kg soil, respectively, for cocoon production and 100 and 160 mg/kg soil, respectively, for juvenile production. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) was more sensitive than oats (Avena sativa) to 1080. Lettuce seedling emergence and seedling shoot growth were adversely affected at a soil concentration of 7 mg/kg. The presence of 1080 in soil at concentrations up to 1 g/kg soil did not affect the ability of soil microorganisms to mineralize nitrogen. Furthermore, nitrate mineralization was not inhibited in soil treated with the urine of 1080-poisoned possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). The data collectively indicate that 1080-related effects on soil organisms occur at levels well above those that have been measured in soil (<0.1 mg/kg) following application of 1080 in baits for vertebrate pest control in New Zealand.

Degradation rate of sodium fluoroacetate in three New Zealand soils.

The degradation rate of sodium fluoroacetate (SFA) was assessed in a laboratory microcosm study incorporating 3 New Zealand soil types under different temperature (5 °C, 10 °C, or 20 °C) and soil moisture (35% or 60% water holding capacity) conditions using guideline 307 from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. A combination of nonlabeled and radiolabeled (14) C-SFA was added to soil microcosms, with sampling and analysis protocols for soil, soil extracts, and evolved CO(2) established using liquid scintillation counting and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Degradation products of SFA and their rates of formation were similar in the 3 soil types. The major degradation pathway for SFA was through microbial degradation to the hydroxyl metabolite, hydroxyacetic acid, and microbial mineralization to CO(2), which constituted the major transformation product. Temperature, rather than soil type or moisture content, was the dominant factor affecting the rate of degradation. Soil treatments incubated at 20 °C displayed a more rapid loss of (14)C-SFA residues than lower temperature treatments. The transformation half-life (DT50) of SFA in the 3 soils increased with decreasing temperature, varying from 6 d to 8 d at 20 °C, 10 d to 21 d at 10 °C, and 22 d to 43 d at 5 °C.

Survivor's Costs of Saying No: Exploring the Experience of Accessing Services for Intimate Partner Violence.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a crucial public health concern with substantial detrimental effects, including poorer physical and mental health as well as increased difficulties accessing formal services. Most research to date has focused on frequencies, barriers, and facilitators of service use among IPV survivors. However, what remains poorly understood is the perspectives of IPV survivors on their experiences of accessing multiple services after leaving the abusive situations. To answer this, six one-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with survivors using expanded definition of "services," which included social services, shelters, health care, police, legal assistance, and so forth. Data were analyzed using Constant Comparison. Four resulting themes were (a) Positive Aspects, (b) Negative Aspects, (c) Impact of Experiences With Services, and (d) Contextual Factors. Within each of these categories, several sub-categories emerged and are discussed within the context of the literature and recommendations are made for improving services for IPV survivors.

Sodium fluoroacetate (1080): assessment of occupational exposures and selection of a provisional biological exposure index.

AIM: Sodium fluoroacetate (1080) is used for control of vertebrate pests in New Zealand. Little is known about chronic effects in humans, but animal studies demonstrate potential for adverse fetal, male fertility, and cardiac effects. We aimed to employ analyses of 1080 to help assess the degree of exposure of bait formulators and distributors, and identify specific tasks where exposure reduction appeared most indicated. We also aimed to utilise the (limited) 1080 toxicity data to assess the significance of the analytical results. METHOD: Exposures during various activities were assessed by monitoring air levels and blood and urine concentrations. To help evaluate the results, a provisional "biological exposure index" (BEI) was later derived, by extrapolating from experimental data. RESULTS: Early monitoring indicated exposures were highest in relation to (cereal) bait manufacturing and aerial carrot baiting procedures. A provisional BEI of 15 microg/L for 1080 in urine was proposed. CONCLUSION: Further protective measures and ongoing workplace monitoring are required, particularly in the above situations. Compliance with the current BEI cannot guarantee complete safety. Any information regarding chronic adverse effects in humans, along with the associated urine levels, would assist risk assessment. Further investigation of the human kinetics of fluoroacetate would be helpful.

Sensory retraining of the lower limb after acute stroke: a randomized controlled pilot trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of a sensory retraining protocol on sensation, postural control, and gait in acute stroke subjects. DESIGN: Randomized controlled pilot trial. SETTING: Inpatient rehabilitation hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-one subjects with sensory deficits in the feet, undergoing rehabilitation for stroke. INTERVENTION: Sensory retraining of the more affected lower limb versus relaxation (sham intervention). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Light touch at the sole of the foot (Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments), proprioception (Distal Proprioception Test), postural control (Berg Balance Scale), and gait (timed, Iowa Level of Assistance Scale). RESULTS: Significant improvements (P<.05) over time were found in light touch at 3 points of the feet and in postural control, timed gait, and walking aid. No significant time effects were observed in proprioception or amount of assistance required to walk. No significant differences were detected between groups in any of the outcome variables, apart from light touch at the first metatarsal. The study had poor power (13%) to detect group effects due to the small sample size. CONCLUSIONS: Results of this pilot study are unable to support or refute the routine use of sensory retraining of the lower limb for people during inpatient rehabilitation after stroke. Further research with a larger sample size is required.