Dorsomedial hypothalamus-raphe pallidus-cardiac sympathetic pathway mediates electroacupuncture intervention of stress-induced tachycardia.

Electroacupuncture at Neiguan point (PC6) effectively ameliorates tachycardia. However, very little is known about the neural pathway mechanism underlying the effect of electroacupuncture at PC6 in stress-induced tachycardia. Here, we investigate whether there exists a dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH)-raphe pallidus (RP)-heart pathway to mediate the effect of electroacupuncture at PC6. The virus tracing results show that the heart is innervated by the neurons in DMH and RP, and the neurons of DMH project to RP. Chemogenetic inhibition of RP projecting DMH neurons reverses the cardiac autonomic imbalance and tachycardia induced by stress. Of note, immunofluorescence results show that the neural activity of DMH and RP is inhibited by electroacupuncture at PC6 accompanied with improved cardiac autonomic imbalance and tachycardia under stress. Moreover, chemogenetic inhibition of RP projecting DMH neurons cannot affect autonomic nervous activity and heart rate of stress rats after administrating electroacupuncture at PC6.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our study suggests that this dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH)-raphe pallidus (RP)-cardiac sympathetic pathway involves in the improvement of cardiac dysfunction associated with stress by administrating electroacupuncture at PC6, thus providing beneficial information for the development of therapeutic strategies to prevent stress-induced cardiovascular diseases, and insight into neural pathway basis for electroacupuncture at PC6 intervention of cardiac dysfunction.

The Protective Effect of Trichosanthes kirilowii Peel Polysaccharide on the Oxidative Damaged HepG2 and HUASMC Cells.

Background: Oxidative stress is an important cause of liver disease and atherosclerosis. Natural substances with antioxidant activity are good drugs for treating liver disease and atherosclerosis. Trichosanthes kirilowii Peel Polysaccharide (TKPP) can remove DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radicals and hydroxyl free radicals in vitro, which shows antioxidant activity. Therefore, it is speculated that it can protect human hepatoma cell line (HepG2) and umbilical artery smooth muscle cell (HUASMC) against oxidative damage by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Methods: Oxidative damage cell models of HepG2 and HUASMC were induced by H2O2. HepG2 and HUASMC were divided into blank group, H2O2 injury group, TKPP treatment group, and glutathione (GSH) positive control group. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) was used to detect cell viability. The level of total GSH and the amount of Nitric oxide (NO) secreted by cells were detected by specific kits. The gene and protein expressions of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were detected by fluorescence quantitative PCR and Western Blot. Results: In these two kinds of cells, compared with the control group, the survival rate, total GSH level, and NO secretion, CAT and SOD gene and protein expressions were significantly decreased in the H2O2 damaged group. In the TKPP treatment group, the cell survival rate was significantly elevated with the increase of the polysaccharide concentration, and the total GSH level, NO secretion, CAT and SOD gene expression, and protein expression levels were also significantly increased. Conclusion: TKPP can improve the activities of HepG2 and HUASMC cells damaged by H2O2 and protect the cellular antioxidant system.

Desynchronized Functional Activities Between Brain White and Gray Matter in Major Depression Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Alterations in gray matter (GM) have been recognized as playing an important role in the neurobiological mechanism underlying major depressive disorder (MDD) and antidepressant responses. However, little is known about white matter (WM) connectivity in MDD, leaving an incomplete understanding of the pathophysiology of the disorder. PURPOSE: To examine the functional connectivity (FC) of WM, GM, and WM-GM in MDD patients and explore the relationship between FC and antidepressant response. STUDY TYPE: Longitudinal study. SUBJECTS: In all, 129 MDD patients and 89 healthy controls (HC). FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE: Whole-brain blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) single-shot echo planar imaging was acquired at 3.0T. ASSESSMENT: At baseline, all participants received Hamilton depression rating scale (HAMD) assessment and an fMRI scan. After 2- and 8-week antidepressant treatment, patients completed the HAMD again. The HAMD reductive rate of 2- and 8-weeks were calculated. STATISTICAL TESTS: The comparisons of age, education, HAMD scores, and FC values (false discovery rate correction) between patients and controls were calculated with a two-sample t-test. The chi-square test was employed to compare the differences of gender between these two groups. Correlations between FC and HAMD, as well as the reductive rate of HAMD, were analyzed with Pearson or Spearman correlation. Receiver operator curve analysis was performed to predict the antidepressant response. RESULTS: Compared to HC, MDD patients exhibited widespread decreases in FC of WM-GM. Furthermore, 28 GM regions and 11 WM bundles had lower connectivity in MDD patients. At baseline, four FC of WM-GM showed negative correlations with the HAMD scores. Six FC of WM-GM correlated with the 2-week reductive rate of HAMD. Moreover, FC in GM, WM, and WM-GM also exhibited significantly positive correlations with an 8-week reductive rate of HAMD. DATA CONCLUSION: The FC of WM-GM was decreased in MDD and may play a role in its pathophysiology and antidepressant responses. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 2. TECHNICAL EFFICACY STAGE: 2.

Electroacupuncture intervention on stress-induced cardiac autonomic imbalance in rats involves corticotropin-releasing hormone system activity.

Autonomic imbalance is a core aspect of stress response that strongly correlates to cardiovascular diseases. Enhanced activity of the central corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) system may result in autonomic imbalance to cause cardiovascular responses in a stress state. Electroacupuncture at PC6 acupoints has been demonstrated to prevent and treat cardiovascular diseases. In this study, we aim to demonstrate the protective role of electroacupuncture at PC6 in ameliorating cardiac autonomic imbalance and investigate the underlying mechanisms in immobilization stress rats. Four groups were subjected. Immobilization stress was applied to three groups. And the rats in two electroacupuncture-intervened groups exerted electroacupuncture at PC6 or tail respectively. Then, we performed ECG recording for heart rate variability (HRV) analysis, and rats were sacrificed after experiments for biological analysis. HRV analysis indicated that electroacupuncture at PC6 improved the enhanced low-frequency band of the power spectrum (LF), the reduced high-frequency band of the power spectrum (HF), and the enhanced LF/HF ratio caused by immobilization stress. Besides, electroacupuncture at PC6 significantly decreased phosphorylated tyrosine hydroxylase expression and increased acetylcholine esterase expression in heart of immobilization stress rats. Furthermore, electroacupuncture at PC6 significantly decreased CRH level and CRH 1 type receptor and CRH 2 type receptor (CRHR2) expressions in the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM), and CRH level and CRHR2 expression in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) of immobilization stress rats. Our findings suggest that electroacupuncture at PC6 can ameliorate stress-induced cardiac autonomic imbalance by modulating the CRHergic input in the RVLM and NTS.

PC6 electroacupuncture reduces stress-induced autonomic and neuroendocrine responses in rats.

Stress can trigger cardiovascular disease. Both imbalance of autonomic nervous activity and increase of neurohormonal output are core aspects of stress responses and can lead to cardiovascular disease. PC6 as a very important acupoint is used to prevent and treat cardiovascular disease and to improve stress-related activities. We examined the influence of electroacupuncture (EA) at PC6 on stress-induced imbalance of autonomic nervous activity and increase of neurohormonal output. EA at PC6 relieved increased cardiac sympathetic nervous activity and decreased cardiac vagal nervous activity induced by immobilization stress. Also, EA at PC6 reduced immobilization stress-induced increases of plasma norepinephrine (NE) and adrenaline (E) released from sympatho-adrenal-medullary axis. Finally, EA at PC6 reduced immobilization stress-induced increases of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus and plasma cortisol (CORT) released from hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. However, EA at tail had no significant effect on the stress-induced autonomic and neuroendocrine responses. The results demonstrate the role of EA at PC6 regulating the autonomic and neuroendocrine responses induced by stress and provide insight into the prevention and treatment of EA at PC6 for stress-induced cardiovascular disease by targeting autonomic and neuroendocrine systems.

Roles of central orexinergic system on cardiovascular function and acupuncture on intervention of cardiovascular risk: Orexinergic system mediate the role of acupuncture?

Central orexinergic system contributes to the regulation of cardiovascular function. Orexinergic neurons receiving projections of nerve fibers from multiple structures of brain which involved in control and regulation of cardiovascular function locate in hypothalamus, and their axon terminals widely project to various central structures where orexins receptors are expressed. Here, we summarize the present knowledge that describes the influence of central orexinergic system on cardiovascular activity, the relevance of dysfunction in central orexinergic system with hypertension and psychological stress induced cardiovascular reactivity which are serious risk factors for cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular death. We propose that central orexinergic system may be potentially important targets for the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular death, and different orexinergic system involved neuronal circuits may be involved in distinct cardiovascular functions. Acupuncture having bidirectional regulatory ability and a much lower incidence of side effects can prevent disease. We review the improvement of acupuncture on hypertension and psychological stress induced cardiovascular reactivity. We think that acupuncture intervenes hypertension and psychological stress induced cardiovascular reactivity to prevent cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular death. We also summarize relation between acupuncture and central orexinergic system. We propose a hypothesis that acupuncture improve hypertension and psychological stress induced cardiovascular reactivity through regulating central orexinergic system. The knowledge is beneficial for the development of potential therapeutic targets and methods to prevent cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular death.

MK-801 changes the role of glutamic acid on modulation of algesia in nucleus accumbens.

Dizocilpine maleate (MK-801) causes the blockage of the glutamic acid (Glu) receptors in the central nervous system that are involved in pain transmission. However, the mechanism of action of MK-801 in pain-related neurons is not clear, and it is still unknown whether Glu is involved in the modulation of this processing. This study examines the effect of MK-801, Glu on the pain-evoked response of pain-excitation neurons (PENs) and pain-inhibition neurons (PINs) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) of rats. The trains of electric impulses applied to the sciatic nerve were used as noxious stimulation. The electrical activities of PENs or PINs in NAc were recorded by a glass microelectrode. Our results revealed that the lateral ventricle injection of Glu increased the discharged frequency and shortened the discharged latency of PEN, and decreased the discharged frequency and prolonged the discharged inhibitory duration (ID) of PIN in NAc of rats evoked by the noxious stimulation, while intra-NAc administration of MK-801 produced the opposite response. On the basis of above findings we can deduce that Glu, MK-801 and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor are involved in the modulation of nociceptive information transmission in NAc.

Cardiovascular functions of central corticotropin-releasing factor related peptides system.

The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) related peptides system has widespread distributions in central nervous system, to perform many physiological and pathophysiological functions, including cardiovascular functions. A complex connection exists between the central CRF related peptides system and cardiovascular system. There are multiple pathways and mechanisms through which the central CRF related peptides system influences cardiovascular functions. A dysfunction in the central CRF related peptides system may lead to a wide range of alterations in cardiovascular functions. Though there are difficulties or limitations in establishing exact modulatory roles of the central CRF related peptides system in cardiovascular functions. The central CRF related peptides system as target to prevent cardiovascular diseases is being pursued with increasing interest. In this review, we summarize recent understanding on cardiovascular functions of the CRF related peptides system in limbic forebrain, hypothalamus and brain stem structures, discuss mechanisms of the central CRF related peptides system in control of cardiovascular functions, and suggest that the central CRF related peptides system may be a potent candidate for prevention of cardiovascular diseases.

Medial cerebellar nucleus projects to feeding-related neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus in rats.

The cerebellum, a hindbrain motor center, also participates in regulating nonsomatic visceral activities such as feeding control. However, the underlying neural mechanism is largely unknown. Here, we investigate whether the cerebellar medial nucleus (MN), one of the final outputs of the cerebellum, could directly project to and modulate the feeding-related neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMN), which has been traditionally implicated in feeding behavior, energy balance, and body weight regulation. The retrograde tracing results show that both GABAergic and glutamatergic projection neurons in the cerebellar MN send direct projections to the VMN. Electrical stimulation of cerebellar MN elicits an inhibitory, excitatory or biphasic response of VMN neurons. Interestingly, the VMN neurons modulated by cerebellar MN afferents not only receive phasic and tonic inputs from the gastric vagal nerves, but also are sensitive to peripheral glycemia and ghrelin signals. Moreover, a summation of inputs from the cerebellar MN and gastric vagal afferents occurs on single glycemia/ghrelin-sensitive neurons in the VMN, and the immunostaining result show that the axons from the cerebellar MN and the projections from the nucleus tractus solitarius, which conveys the gastric vagal inputs to hypothalamus, converge on single VMN glycemia/ghrelin-sensitive neurons. These results demonstrate that the somatic information forwarded by the cerebellar MN, together with the feeding signals from periphery, converge onto single VMN neurons, suggesting that a somatic-visceral integration related to feeding may occur in the VMN and the cerebellum may actively participate in the feeding regulation through the direct cerebellar MN-VMN projections.

Orexin Directly Enhances the Excitability of Globus Pallidus Internus Neurons in Rat by Co-activating OX1 and OX2 Receptors.

Orexin, released from the hypothalamus, has been implicated in various basic non-somatic functions including feeding, the sleep-wakefulness cycle, emotion, and cognition. However, the role of orexin in somatic motor control is still little known. Here, using whole-cell patch clamp recording and immunostaining, we investigated the effect and the underlying receptor mechanism of orexin-A on neurons in the globus pallidus internus (GPi), a critical structure in the basal ganglia and an effective target for deep brain stimulation therapy. Our results showed that orexin-A induced direct postsynaptic excitation of GPi neurons in a concentration-dependent manner. The orexin-A-induced excitation was mediated via co-activation of both OX1 and OX2 receptors. Furthermore, the immunostaining results showed that OX1 and OX2 receptors were co-localized in the same GPi neurons. These results suggest that the central orexinergic system actively modulates the motor functions of the basal ganglia via direct innervation on GPi neurons and presumably participates in somatic-non-somatic integration.

Corticotropin releasing factor excites neurons of posterior hypothalamic nucleus to produce tachycardia in rats.

Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), a peptide hormone involved in the stress response, holds a key position in cardiovascular regulation. Here, we report that the central effect of CRF on cardiovascular activities is mediated by the posterior hypothalamic nucleus (PH), an important structure responsible for stress-induced cardiovascular changes. Our present results demonstrate that CRF directly excites PH neurons via two CRF receptors, CRFR1 and CRFR2, and consequently increases heart rate (HR) rather than the mean arterial pressure (MAP) and renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA). Bilateral vagotomy does not influence the tachycardia response to microinjection of CRF into the PH, while ß adrenergic receptor antagonist propranolol almost totally abolishes the tachycardia. Furthermore, microinjecting CRF into the PH primarily increases neuronal activity of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) and rostral ventromedial medulla (RVMM), but does not influence that of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve (DMNV). These findings suggest that the PH is a critical target for central CRF system in regulation of cardiac activity and the PH-RVLM/RVMM-cardiac sympathetic nerve pathways, rather than PH-DMNV-vagus pathway, may contribute to the CRF-induced tachycardia.

Acetylcholine plays an antinociceptive role by modulating pain-induced discharges of pain-related neurons in the caudate putamen of rats.

The caudate putamen (CPu) has been suggested to be involved in nociceptive modulation. Some neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine (ACh), participate in pain modulation in the central nervous system. However, the active mechanism of ACh on the pain-related neurons in the CPu remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of the cholinergic agonists ACh and pilocarpine and the muscarinic ACh receptor antagonist atropine on the pain-induced response of pain-related neurons in the CPu of Wistar rats. Trains of electrical impulses applied to the sciatic nerve of rat were used as the noxious stimulus. The electrical activities of pain-excited neurons (PENs) or pain-inhibited neurons (PINs) in the CPu were recorded by a glass microelectrode. Our results showed that an intra-CPu injection of 4 µg/2 µl ACh or pilocarpine decreased and increased the pain-induced discharge frequency in the PENs and PINs, respectively. Intra-CPu administration of 1 µg/2 µl atropine produced the opposite effect on these neurons. These findings indicate that ACh may play an analgesic role by affecting the electric activities of PENs and PINs, and the muscarinic pathway may be involved in the modulation of pain perception in the CPu.

Effects of norepinephrine on the electrical activities of pain-related neurons in the rat nucleus accumbens.

This study examined the effects of norepinephrine (NE) and phentolamine on the electrical activities of pain-excited neurons (PENs) and pain-inhibited neurons (PINs) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) of Wistar rats. Trains of electric pulses applied to the right sciatic nerve were used to provide noxious stimulation, and the discharges of PENs and PINs were recorded using a glass microelectrode. Our results revealed that in response to noxious stimulation, NE decreases the evoked discharge frequency of PENs and increases the evoked discharge frequency of PINs in the NAc of healthy rats, whereas phentolamine produced opposite responses. These results demonstrate that NE is involved in the modulation of nociceptive information transmission in the NAc.

Noradrenergic mechanism involved in the nociceptive modulation of nociceptive-related neurons in the caudate putamen.

Norepinephrine (NE) participates in pain modulation of the central nervous system. The caudate putamen (CPu) is one region of the basal ganglia that has been demonstrated to be involved in nociceptive perception. Our previous work has shown that microinjection of different doses of norepinephrine into the CPu produces opposing effects in the tail-flick latency (TFL) of rats. However, the mechanism of action of NE on the pain-related neurons in the CPu remains unclear. The present study examined the effects of NE and the alpha-adrenoceptor antagonist phentolamine on the pain-evoked response of pain-excitation neurons (PENs) and pain-inhibition neurons (PINs) in the CPu of rats. Trains of electric impulses were used for noxious stimulation, and were applied to the sciatic nerve. The electrical activities of pain-related neurons in the CPu were recorded by a glass microelectrode. The results revealed that intra-CPu microinjection of NE (8microg/2microl) increased evoked firing frequency of PEN and shortened the firing latency, but decreased the evoked firing frequency of PIN and prolonged the inhibitory duration (ID). Intra-CPu administration of phentolamine (4microg/2microl) showed the opposite effects. The above results suggest that NE in the CPu modulates nociception by affecting the baseline firing rates of PENs and PINs.

Microinjection of different doses of norepinephrine into the caudate putamen produces opposing effects in rats.

It has been proven that norepinephrine (NE) regulates antinociception through its action on alpha-adrenoceptors located in brain nuclei, spinal cord, and peripheral organs. However, the supraspinal mechanism of noradrenergic pain modulation is controversial. The present study was aimed at investigating the nociceptive effects induced by injecting different doses of NE and phentolamine into the caudate putamen (CPU) of rats. The thermal pain threshold of the rats was measured by performing a tail-flick test. The tail-flick latency (TFL) was measured at 2-60 min after microinjection of the drugs. Our results revealed that the thermal pain threshold increased (long TFL) after the administration of a low dose of NE (2 microg/2 microl) and decreased (short TFL) after injection of a high dose of NE (8 microg/2 microl). In contrast, the pain threshold decreased after the administration of a low dose of phentolamine (1 microg/2 microl), while it increased after injection of a high dose of phentolamine (4 microg/2 microl). These results indicated that the injection of different doses of NE in the CPU of the rats produced opposite effects on the pain threshold, as determined by the tail-flick tests.