The ER membrane complex (EMC) can functionally replace the Oxa1 insertase in mitochondria.

Two multisubunit protein complexes for membrane protein insertion were recently identified in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER): the guided entry of tail anchor proteins (GET) complex and ER membrane complex (EMC). The structures of both of their hydrophobic core subunits, which are required for the insertion reaction, revealed an overall similarity to the YidC/Oxa1/Alb3 family members found in bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. This suggests that these membrane insertion machineries all share a common ancestry. To test whether these ER proteins can functionally replace Oxa1 in yeast mitochondria, we generated strains that express mitochondria-targeted Get2-Get1 and Emc6-Emc3 fusion proteins in Oxa1 deletion mutants. Interestingly, the Emc6-Emc3 fusion was able to complement an Δoxa1 mutant and restored its respiratory competence. The Emc6-Emc3 fusion promoted the insertion of the mitochondrially encoded protein Cox2, as well as of nuclear encoded inner membrane proteins, although was not able to facilitate the assembly of the Atp9 ring. Our observations indicate that protein insertion into the ER is functionally conserved to the insertion mechanism in bacteria and mitochondria and adheres to similar topological principles.

Development of the Mitochondrial Intermembrane Space Disulfide Relay Represents a Critical Step in Eukaryotic Evolution.

The mitochondrial intermembrane space evolved from the bacterial periplasm. Presumably as a consequence of their common origin, most proteins of these compartments are stabilized by structural disulfide bonds. The molecular machineries that mediate oxidative protein folding in bacteria and mitochondria, however, appear to share no common ancestry. Here we tested whether the enzymes Erv1 and Mia40 of the yeast mitochondrial disulfide relay could be functionally replaced by corresponding components of other compartments. We found that the sulfhydryl oxidase Erv1 could be replaced by the Ero1 oxidase or the protein disulfide isomerase from the endoplasmic reticulum, however at the cost of respiration deficiency. In contrast to Erv1, the mitochondrial oxidoreductase Mia40 proved to be indispensable and could not be replaced by thioredoxin-like enzymes, including the cytoplasmic reductase thioredoxin, the periplasmic dithiol oxidase DsbA, and Pdi1. From our studies we conclude that the profound inertness against glutathione, its slow oxidation kinetics and its high affinity to substrates renders Mia40 a unique and essential component of mitochondrial biogenesis. Evidently, the development of a specific mitochondrial disulfide relay system represented a crucial step in the evolution of the eukaryotic cell.

Molecular model of a bacterial flagellar motor in situ reveals a "parts-list" of protein adaptations to increase torque.

One hurdle to understanding how molecular machines work, and how they evolve, is our inability to see their structures in situ. Here we describe a minicell system that enables in situ cryogenic electron microscopy imaging and single particle analysis to investigate the structure of an iconic molecular machine, the bacterial flagellar motor, which spins a helical propeller for propulsion. We determine the structure of the high-torque Campylobacter jejuni motor in situ, including the subnanometre-resolution structure of the periplasmic scaffold, an adaptation essential to high torque. Our structure enables identification of new proteins, and interpretation with molecular models highlights origins of new components, reveals modifications of the conserved motor core, and explain how these structures both template a wider ring of motor proteins, and buttress the motor during swimming reversals. We also acquire insights into universal principles of flagellar torque generation. This approach is broadly applicable to other membrane-residing bacterial molecular machines complexes.

Fortuitously compatible protein surfaces primed allosteric control in cyanobacterial photoprotection.

Highly specific interactions between proteins are a fundamental prerequisite for life, but how they evolve remains an unsolved problem. In particular, interactions between initially unrelated proteins require that they evolve matching surfaces. It is unclear whether such surface compatibilities can only be built by selection in small incremental steps, or whether they can also emerge fortuitously. Here, we used molecular phylogenetics, ancestral sequence reconstruction and biophysical characterization of resurrected proteins to retrace the evolution of an allosteric interaction between two proteins that act in the cyanobacterial photoprotection system. We show that this interaction between the orange carotenoid protein (OCP) and its unrelated regulator, the fluorescence recovery protein (FRP), evolved when a precursor of FRP was horizontally acquired by cyanobacteria. FRP's precursors could already interact with and regulate OCP even before these proteins first encountered each other in an ancestral cyanobacterium. The OCP-FRP interaction exploits an ancient dimer interface in OCP, which also predates the recruitment of FRP into the photoprotection system. Together, our work shows how evolution can fashion complex regulatory systems easily out of pre-existing components.

Endosymbiotic selective pressure at the origin of eukaryotic cell biology.

The dichotomy that separates prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells runs deep. The transition from pro- to eukaryote evolution is poorly understood due to a lack of reliable intermediate forms and definitions regarding the nature of the first host that could no longer be considered a prokaryote, the first eukaryotic common ancestor, FECA. The last eukaryotic common ancestor, LECA, was a complex cell that united all traits characterising eukaryotic biology including a mitochondrion. The role of the endosymbiotic organelle in this radical transition towards complex life forms is, however, sometimes questioned. In particular the discovery of the asgard archaea has stimulated discussions regarding the pre-endosymbiotic complexity of FECA. Here we review differences and similarities among models that view eukaryotic traits as isolated coincidental events in asgard archaeal evolution or, on the contrary, as a result of and in response to endosymbiosis. Inspecting eukaryotic traits from the perspective of the endosymbiont uncovers that eukaryotic cell biology can be explained as having evolved as a solution to housing a semi-autonomous organelle and why the addition of another endosymbiont, the plastid, added no extra compartments. Mitochondria provided the selective pressures for the origin (and continued maintenance) of eukaryotic cell complexity. Moreover, they also provided the energetic benefit throughout eukaryogenesis for evolving thousands of gene families unique to eukaryotes. Hence, a synthesis of the current data lets us conclude that traits such as the Golgi apparatus, the nucleus, autophagosomes, and meiosis and sex evolved as a response to the selective pressures an endosymbiont imposes.

Ancestral State Reconstructions Trace Mitochondria But Not Phagocytosis to the Last Eukaryotic Common Ancestor.

Two main theories have been put forward to explain the origin of mitochondria in eukaryotes: phagotrophic engulfment (undigested food) and microbial symbiosis (physiological interactions). The two theories generate mutually exclusive predictions about the order in which mitochondria and phagocytosis arose. To discriminate the alternatives, we have employed ancestral state reconstructions (ASR) for phagocytosis as a trait, phagotrophy as a feeding habit, the presence of mitochondria, the presence of plastids, and the multinucleated organization across major eukaryotic lineages. To mitigate the bias introduced by assuming a particular eukaryotic phylogeny, we reconstructed the appearance of these traits across 1789 different rooted gene trees, each having species from opisthokonts, mycetozoa, hacrobia, excavate, archeplastida, and Stramenopiles, Alveolates and Rhizaria. The trees reflect conflicting relationships and different positions of the root. We employed a novel phylogenomic test that summarizes ASR across trees which reconstructs a last eukaryotic common ancestor that possessed mitochondria, was multinucleated, lacked plastids, and was non-phagotrophic as well as non-phagocytic. This indicates that both phagocytosis and phagotrophy arose subsequent to the origin of mitochondria, consistent with findings from comparative physiology. Furthermore, our ASRs uncovered multiple origins of phagocytosis and of phagotrophy across eukaryotes, indicating that, like wings in animals, these traits are useful but neither ancestral nor homologous across groups. The data indicate that mitochondria preceded the origin of phagocytosis, such that phagocytosis cannot have been the mechanism by which mitochondria were acquired.

The Asgard Archaeal-Unique Contribution to Protein Families of the Eukaryotic Common Ancestor Was 0.3.

The identification of the asgard archaea has fueled speculations regarding the nature of the archaeal host in eukaryogenesis and its level of complexity prior to endosymbiosis. Here, we analyzed the coding capacity of 150 eukaryotes, 1,000 bacteria, and 226 archaea, including the only cultured member of the asgard archaea. Clustering methods that consistently recover endosymbiotic contributions to eukaryotic genomes recover an asgard archaeal-unique contribution of a mere 0.3% to protein families present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor, while simultaneously suggesting that this group's diversity rivals that of all other archaea combined. The number of homologs shared exclusively between asgard archaea and eukaryotes is only 27 on average. This tiny asgard archaeal-unique contribution to the root of eukaryotic protein families questions claims that archaea evolved complexity prior to eukaryogenesis. Genomic and cellular complexity remains a eukaryote-specific feature and is best understood as the archaeal host's solution to housing an endosymbiont.

Gene Duplications Trace Mitochondria to the Onset of Eukaryote Complexity.

The last eukaryote common ancestor (LECA) possessed mitochondria and all key traits that make eukaryotic cells more complex than their prokaryotic ancestors, yet the timing of mitochondrial acquisition and the role of mitochondria in the origin of eukaryote complexity remain debated. Here, we report evidence from gene duplications in LECA indicating an early origin of mitochondria. Among 163,545 duplications in 24,571 gene trees spanning 150 sequenced eukaryotic genomes, we identify 713 gene duplication events that occurred in LECA. LECA's bacterial-derived genes include numerous mitochondrial functions and were duplicated significantly more often than archaeal-derived and eukaryote-specific genes. The surplus of bacterial-derived duplications in LECA most likely reflects the serial copying of genes from the mitochondrial endosymbiont to the archaeal host's chromosomes. Clustering, phylogenies and likelihood ratio tests for 22.4 million genes from 5,655 prokaryotic and 150 eukaryotic genomes reveal no evidence for lineage-specific gene acquisitions in eukaryotes, except from the plastid in the plant lineage. That finding, and the functions of bacterial genes duplicated in LECA, suggests that the bacterial genes in eukaryotes are acquisitions from the mitochondrion, followed by vertical gene evolution and differential loss across eukaryotic lineages, flanked by concomitant lateral gene transfer among prokaryotes. Overall, the data indicate that recurrent gene transfer via the copying of genes from a resident mitochondrial endosymbiont to archaeal host chromosomes preceded the onset of eukaryotic cellular complexity, favoring mitochondria-early over mitochondria-late hypotheses for eukaryote origin.

Evidence for a Syncytial Origin of Eukaryotes from Ancestral State Reconstruction.

Modern accounts of eukaryogenesis entail an endosymbiotic encounter between an archaeal host and a proteobacterial endosymbiont, with subsequent evolution giving rise to a unicell possessing a single nucleus and mitochondria. The mononucleate state of the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA) is seldom, if ever, questioned, even though cells harboring multiple (syncytia, coenocytes, and polykaryons) are surprisingly common across eukaryotic supergroups. Here, we present a survey of multinucleated forms. Ancestral character state reconstruction for representatives of 106 eukaryotic taxa using 16 different possible roots and supergroup sister relationships, indicate that LECA, in addition to being mitochondriate, sexual, and meiotic, was multinucleate. LECA exhibited closed mitosis, which is the rule for modern syncytial forms, shedding light on the mechanics of its chromosome segregation. A simple mathematical model shows that within LECA's multinucleate cytosol, relationships among mitochondria and nuclei were neither one-to-one, nor one-to-many, but many-to-many, placing mitonuclear interactions and cytonuclear compatibility at the evolutionary base of eukaryotic cell origin. Within a syncytium, individual nuclei and individual mitochondria function as the initial lower-level evolutionary units of selection, as opposed to individual cells, during eukaryogenesis. Nuclei within a syncytium rescue each other's lethal mutations, thereby postponing selection for viable nuclei and cytonuclear compatibility to the generation of spores, buffering transitional bottlenecks at eukaryogenesis. The prokaryote-to-eukaryote transition is traditionally thought to have left no intermediates, yet if eukaryogenesis proceeded via a syncytial common ancestor, intermediate forms have persisted to the present throughout the eukaryotic tree as syncytia but have so far gone unrecognized.

Anomalous Phylogenetic Behavior of Ribosomal Proteins in Metagenome-Assembled Asgard Archaea.

Metagenomic studies permit the exploration of microbial diversity in a defined habitat, and binning procedures enable phylogenomic analyses, taxon description, and even phenotypic characterizations in the absence of morphological evidence. Such lineages include asgard archaea, which were initially reported to represent archaea with eukaryotic cell complexity, although the first images of such an archaeon show simple cells with prokaryotic characteristics. However, these metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) might suffer from data quality problems not encountered in sequences from cultured organisms due to two common analytical procedures of bioinformatics: assembly of metagenomic sequences and binning of assembled sequences on the basis of innate sequence properties and abundance across samples. Consequently, genomic sequences of distantly related taxa, or domains, can in principle be assigned to the same MAG and result in chimeric sequences. The impacts of low-quality or chimeric MAGs on phylogenomic and metabolic prediction remain unknown. Debates that asgard archaeal data are contaminated with eukaryotic sequences are overshadowed by the lack of evidence indicating that individual asgard MAGs stem from the same chromosome. Here, we show that universal proteins including ribosomal proteins of asgard archaeal MAGs fail to meet the basic phylogenetic criterion fulfilled by genome sequences of cultured archaea investigated to date: These proteins do not share common evolutionary histories to the same extent as pure culture genomes do, pointing to a chimeric nature of asgard archaeal MAGs. Our analysis suggests that some asgard archaeal MAGs represent unnatural constructs, genome-like patchworks of genes resulting from assembly and/or the binning process.

Major Changes in Plastid Protein Import and the Origin of the Chloroplastida.

Core components of plastid protein import and the principle of using N-terminal targeting sequences are conserved across the Archaeplastida, but lineage-specific differences exist. Here we compare, in light of plastid protein import, the response to high-light stress from representatives of the three archaeplastidal groups. Similar to land plants, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii displays a broad response to high-light stress, not observed to the same degree in the glaucophyte Cyanophora paradoxa or the rhodophyte Porphyridium purpureum. We find that only the Chloroplastida encode both Toc75 and Oep80 in parallel and suggest that elaborate high-light stress response is supported by changes in plastid protein import. We propose the origin of a phenylalanine-independent import pathway via Toc75 allowed higher import rates to rapidly service high-light stress, but with the cost of reduced specificity. Changes in plastid protein import define the origin of the green lineage, whose greatest evolutionary success was arguably the colonization of land.

The Future of Origin of Life Research: Bridging Decades-Old Divisions.

Research on the origin of life is highly heterogeneous. After a peculiar historical development, it still includes strongly opposed views which potentially hinder progress. In the 1st Interdisciplinary Origin of Life Meeting, early-career researchers gathered to explore the commonalities between theories and approaches, critical divergence points, and expectations for the future. We find that even though classical approaches and theories-e.g. bottom-up and top-down, RNA world vs. metabolism-first-have been prevalent in origin of life research, they are ceasing to be mutually exclusive and they can and should feed integrating approaches. Here we focus on pressing questions and recent developments that bridge the classical disciplines and approaches, and highlight expectations for future endeavours in origin of life research.

Characterization of the BspA and Pmp protein family of trichomonads.

BACKGROUND: Trichomonas vaginalis is a human-infecting trichomonad and as such the best studied and the only for which the full genome sequence is available considering its parasitic lifestyle, T. vaginalis encodes an unusually high number of proteins. Many gene families are massively expanded and some genes are speculated to have been acquired from prokaryotic sources. Among the latter are two gene families that harbour domains which share similarity with proteins of Bacteroidales/Spirochaetales and Chlamydiales: the BspA and the Pmp proteins, respectively. RESULTS: We sequenced the transcriptomes of five trichomonad species and screened for the presence of BspA and Pmp domain-containing proteins and characterized individual candidate proteins from both families in T. vaginalis. Here, we demonstrate that (i) BspA and Pmp domain-containing proteins are universal to trichomonads, but specifically expanded in T. vaginalis; (ii) in line with a concurrent expansion of the endocytic machinery, there is a high number of BspA and Pmp proteins which carry C-terminal endocytic motifs; and (iii) both families traffic through the ER and have the ability to increase adhesion performance in a non-virulent T. vaginalis strain and Tetratrichomonas gallinarum by a so far unknown mechanism. CONCLUSIONS: Our results initiate the functional characterization of these two broadly distributed protein families and help to better understand the origin and evolution of BspA and Pmp domains in trichomonads.

Intermediate filament protein evolution and protists.

Metazoans evolved from a single protist lineage. While all eukaryotes share a conserved actin and tubulin-based cytoskeleton, it is commonly perceived that intermediate filaments (IFs), including lamin, vimentin or keratin among many others, are restricted to metazoans. Actin and tubulin proteins are conserved enough to be detectable across all eukaryotic genomes using standard phylogenetic methods, but IF proteins, in contrast, are notoriously difficult to identify by such means. Since the 1950s, dozens of cytoskeletal proteins in protists have been identified that seemingly do not belong to any of the IF families described for metazoans, yet, from a structural and functional perspective fit criteria that define metazoan IF proteins. Here, we briefly review IF protein discovery in metazoans and the implications this had for the definition of this protein family. We argue that the many cytoskeletal and filament-forming proteins of protists should be incorporated into a more comprehensive picture of IF evolution by aligning it with the recent identification of lamins across the phylogenetic diversity of eukaryotic supergroups. This then brings forth the question of how the diversity of IF proteins has unfolded. The evolution of IF proteins likely represents an example of convergent evolution, which, in combination with the speed with which these cytoskeletal proteins are evolving, generated their current diversity. IF proteins did not first emerge in metazoa, but in protists. Only the emergence of cytosolic IF proteins that appear to stem from a nuclear lamin is unique to animals and coincided with the emergence of true animal multicellularity.

The Physiology of Phagocytosis in the Context of Mitochondrial Origin.

How mitochondria came to reside within the cytosol of their host has been debated for 50 years. Though current data indicate that the last eukaryote common ancestor possessed mitochondria and was a complex cell, whether mitochondria or complexity came first in eukaryotic evolution is still discussed. In autogenous models (complexity first), the origin of phagocytosis poses the limiting step at eukaryote origin, with mitochondria coming late as an undigested growth substrate. In symbiosis-based models (mitochondria first), the host was an archaeon, and the origin of mitochondria was the limiting step at eukaryote origin, with mitochondria providing bacterial genes, ATP synthesis on internalized bioenergetic membranes, and mitochondrion-derived vesicles as the seed of the eukaryote endomembrane system. Metagenomic studies are uncovering new host-related archaeal lineages that are reported as complex or phagocytosing, although images of such cells are lacking. Here we review the physiology and components of phagocytosis in eukaryotes, critically inspecting the concept of a phagotrophic host. From ATP supply and demand, a mitochondrion-lacking phagotrophic archaeal fermenter would have to ingest about 34 times its body weight in prokaryotic prey to obtain enough ATP to support one cell division. It would lack chemiosmotic ATP synthesis at the plasma membrane, because phagocytosis and chemiosmosis in the same membrane are incompatible. It would have lived from amino acid fermentations, because prokaryotes are mainly protein. Its ATP yield would have been impaired relative to typical archaeal amino acid fermentations, which involve chemiosmosis. In contrast, phagocytosis would have had great physiological benefit for a mitochondrion-bearing cell.

Late Mitochondrial Origin Is an Artifact.

The origin of mitochondria was a crucial event in eukaryote evolution. A recent report claimed to provide evidence, based on branch length variation in phylogenetic trees, that the mitochondrion came late in eukaryotic evolution. Here, we reinvestigate their claim with a reanalysis of the published data. We show that the analyses underpinning a late mitochondrial origin suffer from multiple fatal flaws founded in inappropriate statistical methods and analyses, in addition to erroneous interpretations.

The Role of Charge in Protein Targeting Evolution.

Two eukaryotic compartments are of endosymbiotic origin, the mitochondrion and plastid. These organelles need to import hundreds of proteins from the cytosol. The import machineries of both are of independent origin, but function in a similar fashion and recognize N-terminal targeting sequences that also share similarities. Targeting, however, is generally specific, even though plastid targeting evolved in the presence of established mitochondrial targeting. Here we review current advances on protein import into mitochondria and plastids from diverse eukaryotic lineages and highlight the impact of charged amino acids in targeting. Their presence or absence alone can determine localization, and comparisons across diverse eukaryotes, and their different types of mitochondria and plastids, uncover unexplored avenues of protein import research.

Mitochondria, the Cell Cycle, and the Origin of Sex via a Syncytial Eukaryote Common Ancestor.

Theories for the origin of sex traditionally start with an asexual mitosing cell and add recombination, thereby deriving meiosis from mitosis. Though sex was clearly present in the eukaryote common ancestor, the order of events linking the origin of sex and the origin of mitosis is unknown. Here, we present an evolutionary inference for the origin of sex starting with a bacterial ancestor of mitochondria in the cytosol of its archaeal host. We posit that symbiotic association led to the origin of mitochondria and gene transfer to host's genome, generating a nucleus and a dedicated translational compartment, the eukaryotic cytosol, in which-by virtue of mitochondria-metabolic energy was not limiting. Spontaneous protein aggregation (monomer polymerization) and Adenosine Tri-phosphate (ATP)-dependent macromolecular movement in the cytosol thereby became selectable, giving rise to continuous microtubule-dependent chromosome separation (reduction division). We propose that eukaryotic chromosome division arose in a filamentous, syncytial, multinucleated ancestor, in which nuclei with insufficient chromosome numbers could complement each other through mRNA in the cytosol and generate new chromosome combinations through karyogamy. A syncytial (or coenocytic, a synonym) eukaryote ancestor, or Coeca, would account for the observation that the process of eukaryotic chromosome separation is more conserved than the process of eukaryotic cell division. The first progeny of such a syncytial ancestor were likely equivalent to meiospores, released into the environment by the host's vesicle secretion machinery. The natural ability of archaea (the host) to fuse and recombine brought forth reciprocal recombination among fusing (syngamy and karyogamy) progeny-sex-in an ancestrally meiotic cell cycle, from which the simpler haploid and diploid mitotic cell cycles arose. The origin of eukaryotes was the origin of vertical lineage inheritance, and sex was required to keep vertically evolving lineages viable by rescuing the incipient eukaryotic lineage from Muller's ratchet. The origin of mitochondria was, in this view, the decisive incident that precipitated symbiosis-specific cell biological problems, the solutions to which were the salient features that distinguish eukaryotes from prokaryotes: A nuclear membrane, energetically affordable ATP-dependent protein-protein interactions in the cytosol, and a cell cycle involving reduction division and reciprocal recombination (sex).

Bacterial Vesicle Secretion and the Evolutionary Origin of the Eukaryotic Endomembrane System.

Eukaryotes possess an elaborate endomembrane system with endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, Golgi, lysosomes, peroxisomes, autophagosomes, and dynamic vesicle traffic. Theories addressing the evolutionary origin of eukaryotic endomembranes have overlooked the outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) that bacteria, archaea, and mitochondria secrete into their surroundings. We propose that the eukaryotic endomembrane system originated from bacterial OMVs released by the mitochondrial ancestor within the cytosol of its archaeal host at eukaryote origin. Confined within the host's cytosol, OMVs accumulated naturally, fusing either with each other or with the host's plasma membrane. This matched the host's archaeal secretory pathway for cotranslational protein insertion with outward bound mitochondrial-derived vesicles consisting of bacterial lipids, forging a primordial, secretory endoplasmic reticulum as the cornerstone of the eukaryotic endomembrane system. VIDEO ABSTRACT.