Telomere Length Determines TERRA and R-Loop Regulation through the Cell Cycle.

Maintenance of a minimal telomere length is essential to prevent cellular senescence. When critically short telomeres arise in the absence of telomerase, they can be repaired by homology-directed repair (HDR) to prevent premature senescence onset. It is unclear why specifically the shortest telomeres are targeted for HDR. We demonstrate that the non-coding RNA TERRA accumulates as HDR-promoting RNA-DNA hybrids (R-loops) preferentially at very short telomeres. The increased level of TERRA and R-loops, exclusively at short telomeres, is due to a local defect in RNA degradation by the Rat1 and RNase H2 nucleases, respectively. Consequently, the coordination of TERRA degradation with telomere replication is altered at shortened telomeres. R-loop persistence at short telomeres contributes to activation of the DNA damage response (DDR) and promotes recruitment of the Rad51 recombinase. Thus, the telomere length-dependent regulation of TERRA and TERRA R-loops is a critical determinant of the rate of replicative senescence.

Transcription of ncRNAs promotes repair of UV induced DNA lesions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae subtelomeres.

Ultraviolet light causes DNA lesions that are removed by nucleotide excision repair (NER). The efficiency of NER is conditional to transcription and chromatin structure. UV induced photoproducts are repaired faster in the gene transcribed strands than in the non-transcribed strands or in transcriptionally inactive regions of the genome. This specificity of NER is known as transcription-coupled repair (TCR). The discovery of pervasive non-coding RNA transcription (ncRNA) advocates for ubiquitous contribution of TCR to the repair of UV photoproducts, beyond the repair of active gene-transcribed strands. Chromatin rules transcription, and telomeres form a complex structure of proteins that silences nearby engineered ectopic genes. The essential protective function of telomeres also includes preventing unwanted repair of double-strand breaks. Thus, telomeres were thought to be transcriptionally inert, but more recently, ncRNA transcription was found to initiate in subtelomeric regions. On the other hand, induced DNA lesions like the UV photoproducts must be recognized and repaired also at the ends of chromosomes. In this study, repair of UV induced DNA lesions was analyzed in the subtelomeric regions of budding yeast. The T4-endonuclease V nicking-activity at cyclobutene pyrimidine dimer (CPD) sites was exploited to monitor CPD formation and repair. The presence of two photoproducts, CPDs and pyrimidine (6,4)-pyrimidones (6-4PPs), was verified by the effective and precise blockage of Taq DNA polymerase at these sites. The results indicate that UV photoproducts in silenced heterochromatin are slowly repaired, but that ncRNA transcription enhances NER throughout one subtelomeric element, called Y', and in distinct short segments of the second, more conserved element, called X. Therefore, ncRNA-transcription dependent TCR assists global genome repair to remove CPDs and 6-4PPs from subtelomeric DNA.

The Smc5/6 complex regulates the yeast Mph1 helicase at RNA-DNA hybrid-mediated DNA damage.

RNA-DNA hybrids are naturally occurring obstacles that must be overcome by the DNA replication machinery. In the absence of RNase H enzymes, RNA-DNA hybrids accumulate, resulting in replication stress, DNA damage and compromised genomic integrity. We demonstrate that Mph1, the yeast homolog of Fanconi anemia protein M (FANCM), is required for cell viability in the absence of RNase H enzymes. The integrity of the Mph1 helicase domain is crucial to prevent the accumulation of RNA-DNA hybrids and RNA-DNA hybrid-dependent DNA damage, as determined by Rad52 foci. Mph1 forms foci when RNA-DNA hybrids accumulate, e.g. in RNase H or THO-complex mutants and at short telomeres. Mph1, however is a double-edged sword, whose action at hybrids must be regulated by the Smc5/6 complex. This is underlined by the observation that simultaneous inactivation of RNase H2 and Smc5/6 results in Mph1-dependent synthetic lethality, which is likely due to an accumulation of toxic recombination intermediates. The data presented here support a model, where Mph1's helicase activity plays a crucial role in responding to persistent RNA-DNA hybrids.

A subtelomeric region affects telomerase-negative replicative senescence in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

In eukaryotes, telomeres determine cell proliferation potential by triggering replicative senescence in the absence of telomerase. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, senescence is mainly dictated by the first telomere that reaches a critically short length, activating a DNA-damage-like response. How the corresponding signaling is modulated by the telomeric structure and context is largely unknown. Here we investigated how subtelomeric elements of the shortest telomere in a telomerase-negative cell influence the onset of senescence. We found that a 15 kb truncation of the 7L subtelomere widely used in studies of telomere biology affects cell growth when combined with telomerase inactivation. This effect is likely not explained by (i) elimination of sequence homology at chromosome ends that would compromise homology-directed DNA repair mechanisms; (ii) elimination of the conserved subtelomeric X-element; (iii) elimination of a gene that would become essential in the absence of telomerase; and (iv) heterochromatinization of inner genes, causing the silencing of an essential gene in replicative senescent cells. This works contributes to better delineate subtelomere functions and their impact on telomere biology.

Exploring Quantitative Yeast Phenomics with Single-Cell Analysis of DNA Damage Foci.

A significant challenge of functional genomics is to develop methods for genome-scale acquisition and analysis of cell biological data. Here, we present an integrated method that combines genome-wide genetic perturbation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae with high-content screening to facilitate the genetic description of sub-cellular structures and compartment morphology. As proof of principle, we used a Rad52-GFP marker to examine DNA damage foci in ∼20 million single cells from ∼5,000 different mutant backgrounds in the context of selected genetic or chemical perturbations. Phenotypes were classified using a machine learning-based automated image analysis pipeline. 345 mutants were identified that had elevated numbers of DNA damage foci, almost half of which were identified only in sensitized backgrounds. Subsequent analysis of Vid22, a protein implicated in the DNA damage response, revealed that it acts together with the Sgs1 helicase at sites of DNA damage and preferentially binds G-quadruplex regions of the genome. This approach is extensible to numerous other cell biological markers and experimental systems.