Engineering TALE-linked deaminases to facilitate precision adenine base editing in mitochondrial DNA.

DddA-derived cytosine base editors (DdCBEs) and transcription activator-like effector (TALE)-linked deaminases (TALEDs) catalyze targeted base editing of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in eukaryotic cells, a method useful for modeling of mitochondrial genetic disorders and developing novel therapeutic modalities. Here, we report that A-to-G-editing TALEDs but not C-to-T-editing DdCBEs induce tens of thousands of transcriptome-wide off-target edits in human cells. To avoid these unwanted RNA edits, we engineered the substrate-binding site in TadA8e, the deoxy-adenine deaminase in TALEDs, and created TALED variants with fine-tuned deaminase activity. Our engineered TALED variants not only reduced RNA off-target edits by >99% but also minimized off-target mtDNA mutations and bystander edits at a target site. Unlike wild-type versions, our TALED variants were not cytotoxic and did not cause developmental arrest of mouse embryos. As a result, we obtained mice with pathogenic mtDNA mutations, associated with Leigh syndrome, which showed reduced heart rates.

Germline predisposition to pediatric Ewing sarcoma is characterized by inherited pathogenic variants in DNA damage repair genes.

More knowledge is needed regarding germline predisposition to Ewing sarcoma to inform biological investigation and clinical practice. Here, we evaluated the enrichment of pathogenic germline variants in Ewing sarcoma relative to other pediatric sarcoma subtypes, as well as patterns of inheritance of these variants. We carried out European-focused and pan-ancestry case-control analyses to screen for enrichment of pathogenic germline variants in 141 established cancer predisposition genes in 1,147 individuals with pediatric sarcoma diagnoses (226 Ewing sarcoma, 438 osteosarcoma, 180 rhabdomyosarcoma, and 303 other sarcoma) relative to identically processed cancer-free control individuals. Findings in Ewing sarcoma were validated with an additional cohort of 430 individuals, and a subset of 301 Ewing sarcoma parent-proband trios was analyzed for inheritance patterns of identified pathogenic variants. A distinct pattern of pathogenic germline variants was seen in Ewing sarcoma relative to other sarcoma subtypes. FANCC was the only gene with an enrichment signal for heterozygous pathogenic variants in the European Ewing sarcoma discovery cohort (three individuals, OR 12.6, 95% CI 3.0-43.2, p = 0.003, FDR = 0.40). This enrichment in FANCC heterozygous pathogenic variants was again observed in the European Ewing sarcoma validation cohort (three individuals, OR 7.0, 95% CI 1.7-23.6, p = 0.014), representing a broader importance of genes involved in DNA damage repair, which were also nominally enriched in individuals with Ewing sarcoma. Pathogenic variants in DNA damage repair genes were acquired through autosomal inheritance. Our study provides new insight into germline risk factors contributing to Ewing sarcoma pathogenesis.

mTOR Inhibition Restores Amino Acid Balance in Cells Dependent on Catabolism of Extracellular Protein.

Scavenging of extracellular protein via macropinocytosis is an alternative to monomeric amino acid uptake. In pancreatic cancer, macropinocytosis is driven by oncogenic Ras signaling and contributes substantially to amino acid supply. While Ras signaling promotes scavenging, mTOR signaling suppresses it. Here, we present an integrated experimental-computational method that enables quantitative comparison of protein scavenging rates across cell lines and conditions. Using it, we find that, independently of mTORC1, amino acid scarcity induces protein scavenging and that under such conditions the impact of mTOR signaling on protein scavenging rate is minimal. Nevertheless, mTOR inhibition promotes growth of cells reliant on eating extracellular protein. This growth enhancement depends on mTORC1's canonical function in controlling translation rate: mTOR inhibition slows translation, thereby matching protein synthesis to the limited amino acid supply. Thus, paradoxically, in amino acid-poor conditions the pro-anabolic effects of mTORC1 are functionally opposed to growth.

Detection of Pathogenic Variants With Germline Genetic Testing Using Deep Learning vs Standard Methods in Patients With Prostate Cancer and Melanoma.

Importance: Less than 10% of patients with cancer have detectable pathogenic germline alterations, which may be partially due to incomplete pathogenic variant detection. Objective: To evaluate if deep learning approaches identify more germline pathogenic variants in patients with cancer. Design, Setting, and Participants: A cross-sectional study of a standard germline detection method and a deep learning method in 2 convenience cohorts with prostate cancer and melanoma enrolled in the US and Europe between 2010 and 2017. The final date of clinical data collection was December 2017. Exposures: Germline variant detection using standard or deep learning methods. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcomes included pathogenic variant detection performance in 118 cancer-predisposition genes estimated as sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV). The secondary outcomes were pathogenic variant detection performance in 59 genes deemed actionable by the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) and 5197 clinically relevant mendelian genes. True sensitivity and true specificity could not be calculated due to lack of a criterion reference standard, but were estimated as the proportion of true-positive variants and true-negative variants, respectively, identified by each method in a reference variant set that consisted of all variants judged to be valid from either approach. Results: The prostate cancer cohort included 1072 men (mean [SD] age at diagnosis, 63.7 [7.9] years; 857 [79.9%] with European ancestry) and the melanoma cohort included 1295 patients (mean [SD] age at diagnosis, 59.8 [15.6] years; 488 [37.7%] women; 1060 [81.9%] with European ancestry). The deep learning method identified more patients with pathogenic variants in cancer-predisposition genes than the standard method (prostate cancer: 198 vs 182; melanoma: 93 vs 74); sensitivity (prostate cancer: 94.7% vs 87.1% [difference, 7.6%; 95% CI, 2.2% to 13.1%]; melanoma: 74.4% vs 59.2% [difference, 15.2%; 95% CI, 3.7% to 26.7%]), specificity (prostate cancer: 64.0% vs 36.0% [difference, 28.0%; 95% CI, 1.4% to 54.6%]; melanoma: 63.4% vs 36.6% [difference, 26.8%; 95% CI, 17.6% to 35.9%]), PPV (prostate cancer: 95.7% vs 91.9% [difference, 3.8%; 95% CI, -1.0% to 8.4%]; melanoma: 54.4% vs 35.4% [difference, 19.0%; 95% CI, 9.1% to 28.9%]), and NPV (prostate cancer: 59.3% vs 25.0% [difference, 34.3%; 95% CI, 10.9% to 57.6%]; melanoma: 80.8% vs 60.5% [difference, 20.3%; 95% CI, 10.0% to 30.7%]). For the ACMG genes, the sensitivity of the 2 methods was not significantly different in the prostate cancer cohort (94.9% vs 90.6% [difference, 4.3%; 95% CI, -2.3% to 10.9%]), but the deep learning method had a higher sensitivity in the melanoma cohort (71.6% vs 53.7% [difference, 17.9%; 95% CI, 1.82% to 34.0%]). The deep learning method had higher sensitivity in the mendelian genes (prostate cancer: 99.7% vs 95.1% [difference, 4.6%; 95% CI, 3.0% to 6.3%]; melanoma: 91.7% vs 86.2% [difference, 5.5%; 95% CI, 2.2% to 8.8%]). Conclusions and Relevance: Among a convenience sample of 2 independent cohorts of patients with prostate cancer and melanoma, germline genetic testing using deep learning, compared with the current standard genetic testing method, was associated with higher sensitivity and specificity for detection of pathogenic variants. Further research is needed to understand the relevance of these findings with regard to clinical outcomes.

Advances in wearable electronics for monitoring human organs: Bridging external and internal health assessments.

Devices used for diagnosing disease are often large, expensive, and require operation by trained professionals, which can result in delayed diagnosis and missed opportunities for timely treatment. However, wearable devices are being recognized as a new approach to overcoming these difficulties, as they are small, affordable, and easy to use. Recent advancements in wearable technology have made monitoring information possible from the surface of organs like the skin and eyes, enabling accurate diagnosis of the user's internal status. In this review, we categorize the body's organs into external (e.g., eyes, oral cavity, neck, and skin) and internal (e.g., heart, brain, lung, stomach, and bladder) organ systems and introduce recent developments in the materials and designs of wearable electronics, including electrochemical and electrophysiological sensors applied to each organ system. Further, we explore recent innovations in wearable electronics for monitoring of deep internal organs, such as the heart, brain, and nervous system, using ultrasound, electrical impedance tomography, and temporal interference stimulation. The review also addresses the current challenges in wearable technology and explores future directions to enhance the effectiveness and applicability of these devices in medical diagnostics. This paper establishes a framework for correlating the design and functionality of wearable electronics with the physiological characteristics and requirements of various organ systems.

Somatic structural variants drive distinct modes of oncogenesis in melanoma.

The diversity of structural variants (SVs) in melanoma and how they impact oncogenesis are incompletely known. We performed harmonized analysis of SVs across melanoma histologic and genomic subtypes, and we identified distinct global properties between subtypes. These included the frequency and size of SVs and SV classes, their relation to chromothripsis events, and the impact on cancer-related genes of SVs that alter topologically associated domain (TAD) boundaries. Following our prior identification of double-stranded break repair deficiency in a subset of triple-wild-type cutaneous melanoma, we identified MRE11 and NBN loss-of-function SVs in melanomas with this mutational signature. Experimental knockouts of MRE11 and NBN, followed by olaparib cell viability assays in melanoma cells, indicated that dysregulation of each of these genes may cause sensitivity to PARP inhibitors in cutaneous melanomas. Broadly, harmonized analysis of melanoma SVs revealed distinct global genomic properties and molecular drivers, which may have biological and therapeutic impact.

Comprehensive phenotypic assessment of nonsense mutations in mitochondrial ND5 in mice.

Mitochondrial dysfunction induced by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations has been implicated in various human diseases. A comprehensive analysis of mitochondrial genetic disorders requires suitable animal models for human disease studies. While gene knockout via premature stop codons is a powerful method for investigating the unique functions of target genes, achieving knockout of mtDNA has been rare. Here, we report the genotypes and phenotypes of heteroplasmic MT-ND5 gene-knockout mice. These mutant mice presented damaged mitochondrial cristae in the cerebral cortex, hippocampal atrophy, and asymmetry, leading to learning and memory abnormalities. Moreover, mutant mice are susceptible to obesity and thermogenetic disorders. We propose that these mtDNA gene-knockdown mice could serve as valuable animal models for studying the MT-ND5 gene and developing therapies for human mitochondrial disorders in the future.

Interplay of Mendelian and polygenic risk factors in Arab breast cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer patients from the indigenous Arab population present much earlier than patients from Western countries and have traditionally been underrepresented in cancer genomics studies. The contribution of polygenic and Mendelian risk toward the earlier onset of breast cancer in the population remains elusive. METHODS: We performed low-pass whole genome sequencing (lpWGS) and whole-exome sequencing (WES) from 220 female breast cancer patients unselected for positive family history from the indigenous Arab population. Using publicly available resources, we imputed population-specific variants and calculated breast cancer burden-sensitive polygenic risk scores (PRS). Variant pathogenicity was also evaluated on exome variants with high coverage. RESULTS: Variants imputed from lpWGS showed high concordance with paired exome (median dosage correlation: 0.9459, Interquartile range: 0.9410-0.9490). After adjusting the PRS to the Arab population, we found significant associations between PRS performance in risk prediction and first-degree relative breast cancer history prediction (Spearman rho=0.43, p = 0.03), where breast cancer patients in the top PRS decile are 5.53 (95% CI 1.76-17.97, p = 0.003) times more likely also to have a first-degree relative diagnosed with breast cancer compared to those in the middle deciles. In addition, we found evidence for the genetic liability threshold model of breast cancer where among patients with a family history of breast cancer, pathogenic rare variant carriers had significantly lower PRS than non-carriers (p = 0.0205, Mann-Whitney U test) while for non-carriers every standard deviation increase in PRS corresponded to 4.52 years (95% CI 8.88-0.17, p = 0.042) earlier age of presentation. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our study provides a framework to assess polygenic risk in an understudied population using lpWGS and identifies common variant risk as a factor independent of pathogenic variant carrier status for earlier age of onset of breast cancer among indigenous Arab breast cancer patients.

Isotropic conductive paste for bioresorbable electronics.

Bioresorbable implantable medical devices can be employed in versatile clinical scenarios that burden patients with complications and surgical removal of conventional devices. However, a shortage of suitable electricalinterconnection materials limits the development of bioresorbable electronic systems. Therefore, this study highlights a highly conductive, naturally resorbable paste exhibiting enhanced electrical conductivity and mechanical stability that can solve the existing problems of bioresorbable interconnections. Multifaceted experiments on electrical and physical properties were used to optimize the composition of pastes containing beeswax, submicron tungstenparticles, and glycofurol. These pastes embody isotropic conductive paths for three-dimensional interconnects and function as antennas, sensors, and contact pads for bioresorbable electronic devices. The degradation behavior in aqueous solutions was used to assess its stability and ability to retain electrical conductance (∼7 â€‹kS/m) and structural form over the requisite dissolution period. In vitro and in vivo biocompatibility tests clarified the safety of the paste as an implantable material.

Analysis of evolutionary dynamics and clonal architecture in prostate cancer.

The extent to which clinical and genomic characteristics associate with prostate cancer clonal architecture, tumor evolution, and therapeutic response remains unclear. Here, we reconstructed the clonal architecture and evolutionary trajectories of 845 prostate cancer tumors with harmonized clinical and molecular data. We observed that tumors from patients who self-reported as Black had more linear and monoclonal architectures, despite these men having higher rates of biochemical recurrence. This finding contrasts with prior observations relating polyclonal architecture to adverse clinical outcomes. Additionally, we utilized a novel approach to mutational signature analysis that leverages clonal architecture to uncover additional cases of homologous recombination and mismatch repair deficiency in primary and metastatic tumors and link the origin of mutational signatures to specific subclones. Broadly, prostate cancer clonal architecture analysis reveals novel biological insights that may be immediately clinically actionable and provide multiple opportunities for subsequent investigation. Statement of significance: Tumors from patients who self-reported as Black demonstrate linear and monoclonal evolutionary trajectories yet experience higher rates of biochemical recurrence. In addition, analysis of clonal and subclonal mutational signatures identifies additional tumors with potentially actionable alterations such as deficiencies in mismatch repair and homologous recombination.

Integrative Analysis of Germline Rare Variants in Clear and Non-Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma.

IMPORTANCE: RCC encompasses a set of histologically distinct cancers with a high estimated genetic heritability, of which only a portion is currently explained. Previous rare germline variant studies in RCC have usually pooled clear and non-clear cell RCCs and have not adequately accounted for population stratification that may significantly impact the interpretation and discovery of certain candidate risk genes. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the enrichment of germline PVs in established cancer-predisposing genes (CPGs) in clear cell and non-clear cell RCC patients compared to cancer-free controls using approaches that account for population stratification and to identify unconventional types of germline RCC risk variants that confer an increased risk of developing RCC. DESIGN SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: In 1,436 unselected RCC patients with sufficient data quality, we systematically identified rare germline PVs, cryptic splice variants, and copy number variants (CNVs). From this unselected cohort, 1,356 patients were ancestry-matched with 16,512 cancer-free controls, and gene-level enrichment of rare germline PVs were assessed in 143 CPGs, followed by an investigation of somatic events in matching tumor samples. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Gene-level burden of rare germline PVs, identification of secondary somatic events accompanying the germline PVs, and characterization of less-explored types of rare germline PVs in RCC patients. RESULTS: In clear cell RCC (n = 976 patients), patients exhibited significantly higher prevalence of PVs in VHL compared to controls (OR: 39.1, 95% CI: 7.01-218.07, p-value:4.95e-05, q-value:0.00584). In non-clear cell RCC (n = 380 patients), patients carried enriched burden of PVs in FH (OR: 77.9, 95% CI: 18.68-324.97, p-value:1.55e-08, q-value: 1.83e-06) and MET (OR: 1.98e11, 95% CI: 0-inf, p-value: 2.07e-05, q-value: 3.50e-07). In a CHEK2-focused analysis with European cases and controls, clear cell RCC patients (n=906 European patients) harbored nominal enrichment of the previously reported low-penetrance CHEK2 variants, p.Ile157Thr (OR:1.84, 95% CI: 1.00-3.36, p-value:0.049) and p.Ser428Phe (OR:5.20, 95% CI: 1.00-26.40, p-value:0.045) while non-clear cell RCC patients (n=295 European patients) exhibited nominal enrichment of CHEK2 LOF germline PVs (OR: 3.51, 95% CI: 1.10-11.10, p-value: 0.033). RCC patients with germline PVs in FH, MET, and VHL exhibited significantly earlier age of cancer onset compared to patients without any germline PVs in CPGs (Mean: 46.0 vs 60.2 years old, Tukey adjusted p-value < 0.0001), and more than half had secondary somatic events affecting the same gene (n=10/15, 66.7%, 95% CI: 38.7-87.0%). Conversely, patients with rare germline PVs in CHEK2 exhibited a similar age of disease onset to patients without any identified germline PVs in CPGs (Mean: 60.1 vs 60.2 years old, Tukey adjusted p-value: 0.99), and only 30.4% of the patients carried secondary somatic events in CHEK2 (n=7/23, 95% CI: 14.1-53.0%). Finally, rare pathogenic germline cryptic splice variants underexplored in RCC were identified in SDHA and TSC1, and rare pathogenic germline CNVs were found in 18 patients, including CNVs in FH, SDHA, and VHL. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: This systematic analysis supports the existing link between several RCC risk genes and elevated RCC risk manifesting in earlier age of RCC onset. Our analysis calls for caution when assessing the role of germline PVs in CHEK2 due to the burden of founder variants with varying population frequency in different ancestry groups. It also broadens the definition of the RCC germline landscape of pathogenicity to incorporate previously understudied types of germline variants, such as cryptic splice variants and CNVs.

GCN2 adapts protein synthesis to scavenging-dependent growth.

Pancreatic cancer cells with limited access to free amino acids can grow by scavenging extracellular protein. In a murine model of pancreatic cancer, we performed a genome-wide CRISPR screen for genes required for scavenging-dependent growth. The screen identified key mediators of macropinocytosis, peripheral lysosome positioning, endosome-lysosome fusion, lysosomal protein catabolism, and translational control. The top hit was GCN2, a kinase that suppresses translation initiation upon amino acid depletion. Using isotope tracers, we show that GCN2 is not required for protein scavenging. Instead, GCN2 prevents ribosome stalling but without slowing protein synthesis; cells still use all of the limiting amino acids as they emerge from lysosomes. GCN2 also adapts gene expression to the nutrient-poor environment, reorienting protein synthesis away from ribosomes and toward lysosomal hydrolases, such as cathepsin L. GCN2, cathepsin L, and the other genes identified in the screen are potential therapeutic targets in pancreatic cancer.

Ion-Enhanced Etching Characteristics of sp2-Rich Hydrogenated Amorphous Carbons in CF4 Plasmas and O2 Plasmas.

The sp2-rich hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a-C:H) is widely adopted as hard masks in semiconductor-device fabrication processes. The ion-enhanced etch characteristics of sp2-rich a-C:H films on ion density and ion energy were investigated in CF4 plasmas and O2 plasmas in this work. The etch rate of sp2-rich a-C:H films in O2 plasmas increased linearly with ion density when no bias power was applied, while the fluorocarbon deposition was observed in CF4 plasmas instead of etching without bias power. The etch rate was found to be dependent on the half-order curve of ion energy in both CF4 plasmas and O2 plasmas when bias power was applied. An ion-enhanced etching model was suggested to fit the etch rates of a-C:H in CF4 plasmas and O2 plasmas. Then, the etch yield and the threshold energy for etching were determined based on this model from experimental etch rates in CF4 plasma and O2 plasma. The etch yield of 3.45 was observed in CF4 plasmas, while 12.3 was obtained in O2 plasmas, owing to the high reactivity of O radicals with carbon atoms. The threshold energy of 12 eV for a-C:H etching was obtained in O2 plasmas, while the high threshold energy of 156 eV was observed in CF4 plasmas. This high threshold energy is attributed to the formation of a fluorocarbon layer that protects the a-C:H films from ion-enhanced etching.

hBN Flake Embedded Al2O3 Thin Film for Flexible Moisture Barrier.

Due to the vulnerability of organic optoelectronic devices to moisture and oxygen, thin-film moisture barriers have played a critical role in improving the lifetime of the devices. Here, we propose a hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) embedded Al2O3 thin film as a flexible moisture barrier. After layer-by-layer (LBL) staking of polymer and hBN flake composite layer, Al2O3 was deposited on the nano-laminate template by spatial plasma atomic layer deposition (PEALD). Because the hBN flakes in Al2O3 thin film increase the diffusion path of moisture, the composite layer has a low water vapor transmission ratio (WVTR) value of 1.8 × 10-4 g/m2 day. Furthermore, as embedded hBN flakes restrict crack propagation, the composite film exhibits high mechanical stability in repeated 3 mm bending radius fatigue tests.

Comparative toxicity of potential leachates from perovskite and silicon solar cells in aquatic ecosystems.

Globally, perovskite solar cells (PSCs) represent a third-generation photovoltaic technology that is being increasingly implemented and commercialized. However, the biological impacts of leachates from PSCs are poorly understood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the ecotoxicity of PSC leachates compared with that of commercial Si-based solar cell (SBSC) leachates. We performed leaching assessments and aquatic bioassays using internationally recommended test species and measured and compared the ecotoxicity of PSC and SBSC leachates. As a result of the leaching analyses, Si, Pb, and Al were found to be the most leached elements from broken PSCs and SBSCs. The bioassays indicated that polycrystalline SBSC (p-Si) and monocrystalline SBSC (m-Si) leachates were more toxic to fish embryos than the PSC leachates and that water fleas were sensitive to m-Si leachates, but less sensitive to PSC and p-Si leachates. In addition, principle component analyses indicated that the ecotoxicity of solar cell leachates was related to either the Pb or Si content. This is the first comparative study of the potential ecotoxicity of PSC and SBSC leachates in aquatic ecosystems, and the results of which can be used in the environmentally safe commercialization of solar cells.

Analytical protocol to identify local ancestry-associated molecular features in cancer.

People of different ancestries vary in cancer risk and outcome, and their molecular differences may indicate sources of these variations. Determining the "local" ancestry composition at each genetic locus across ancestry-admixed populations can suggest causal associations. We present a protocol to identify local ancestry and detect the associated molecular changes, using data from the Cancer Genome Atlas. This workflow can be applied to cancer cohorts with matched tumor and normal data from admixed patients to examine germline contributions to cancer. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Carrot-Zhang et al. (2020).

Defect-Free Mechanical Graphene Transfer Using n-Doping Adhesive Gel Buffer.

The synthesis of uniform low-defect graphene on a catalytic metal substrate is getting closer to the industrial level. However, its practical application is still challenging due to the lack of an appropriate method for its scalable damage-free transfer to a device substrate. Here, an efficient approach for a defect-free, etchant-free, wrinkle-free, and large-area graphene transfer is demonstrated by exploiting a multifunctional viscoelastic polymer gel as a simultaneous shock-free adhesive and dopant layer. Initially, an amine-rich polymer solution in its liquid form allows for conformal coating on a graphene layer grown on a Cu substrate. The subsequent thermally cured soft gel enables the shock-free and wrinkle-free direct mechanical exfoliation of graphene from a substrate due to its strong charge-transfer interaction with graphene and excellent shock absorption. The adhesive gel with a high optical transparency works as an electron doping layer toward graphene, which exhibits significantly reduced sheet resistances without optical transmittance loss. Lastly, the transferred graphene layer shows high mechanical and chemical stabilities under the repeated bending test and exposure to various solvents. This gel-assisted mechanical transfer method can be a solution to connect the missing part between large-scale graphene synthesis and next-generation electronics and optoelectronic applications.

Comprehensive Analysis of Genetic Ancestry and Its Molecular Correlates in Cancer.

We evaluated ancestry effects on mutation rates, DNA methylation, and mRNA and miRNA expression among 10,678 patients across 33 cancer types from The Cancer Genome Atlas. We demonstrated that cancer subtypes and ancestry-related technical artifacts are important confounders that have been insufficiently accounted for. Once accounted for, ancestry-associated differences spanned all molecular features and hundreds of genes. Biologically significant differences were usually tissue specific but not specific to cancer. However, admixture and pathway analyses suggested some of these differences are causally related to cancer. Specific findings included increased FBXW7 mutations in patients of African origin, decreased VHL and PBRM1 mutations in renal cancer patients of African origin, and decreased immune activity in bladder cancer patients of East Asian origin.