County-Level Structural Vulnerabilities in Maternal Health and Geographic Variation in Infant Mortality.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether community factors that differentially affect the health of pregnant people contribute to geographic differences in infant mortality across the US. STUDY DESIGN: This retrospective cohort study sought to characterize the association of a novel composite measure of county-level maternal structural vulnerabilities, the Maternal Vulnerability Index (MVI), with risk of infant death. We evaluated 11 456 232 singleton infants born at 22 0 of 7 through 44 6 of 7 weeks' gestation from 2012 to 2014. Using county-level MVI, which ranges from 0 to 100, multivariable mixed effects logistic regression models quantified associations per 20-point increment in MVI, with odds of death clustered at the county level and adjusted for state, maternal, and infant covariates. Secondary analyses stratified by the social, physical, and health exposures that comprise the overall MVI score. Outcome was also stratified by cause of death. RESULTS: Rates of death were higher among infants from counties with the greatest maternal vulnerability (0.62% in highest quintile vs 0.32% in lowest quintile, [P < .001]). Odds of death increased 6% per 20-point increment in MVI (aOR: 1.06, 95% CI 1.04, 1.07). The effect estimate was highest with theme of Mental Health and Substance Abse (aOR 1.08; 95% CI 1.06, 1.09). Increasing vulnerability was associated with 6 of 7 causes of death. CONCLUSIONS: Community-level social, physical, and healthcare determinants indicative of maternal vulnerability may explain some of the geographic variation in infant death, regardless of cause of death. Interventions targeted to county-specific maternal vulnerabilities may reduce infant mortality.

The Uptake of Telemedicine in Obstetric Care During the Early Acute Phase of the Coronavirus 2019 Pandemic.

Introduction: The early acute phase of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic created rapid adaptation in health care delivery. Methods: Using electronic medical record data from two different institutions located in two different states, we examined how telemedicine was integrated into obstetric care. Results: With no telemedicine use prior, both institutions rapidly incorporated telemedicine into prenatal care (PNC). There were significant patient-level and institutional-level differences in telemedicine use. Telemedicine users initiated PNC earlier and had more total visits, earlier timing of ultrasounds, and earlier diabetes screening during pregnancy compared with nonusers. There were no significant differences in delivery mode or stillbirth associated with telemedicine use at either institution. Conclusions: Rapid adoption of obstetric telemedicine maintained adequate prenatal care provision during the early pandemic, but implementation varied across institutions.

Umbilical Cord Milking vs Delayed Cord Clamping and Associations with In-Hospital Outcomes among Extremely Premature Infants.

OBJECTIVE: To compare in-hospital outcomes after umbilical cord milking vs delayed cord clamping among infants <29 weeks of gestation. STUDY DESIGN: Multicenter retrospective study of infants born <29 weeks of gestation from 2016 to 2018 without congenital anomalies who received active treatment at delivery and were exposed to umbilical cord milking or delayed cord clamping. The primary outcome was mortality or severe (grade III or IV) intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) by 36 weeks of postmenstrual age (PMA). Secondary outcomes assessed at 36 weeks of PMA were mortality, severe IVH, any IVH or mortality, and a composite of mortality or major morbidity. Outcomes were assessed using multivariable regression, incorporating mortality risk factors identified a priori, confounders, and center. A prespecified, exploratory analysis evaluated severe IVH in 2 gestational age strata, 22-246/7 and 25-286/7 weeks. RESULTS: Among 1834 infants, 23.6% were exposed to umbilical cord milking and 76.4% to delayed cord clamping. The primary outcome, mortality or severe IVH, occurred in 21.1% of infants: 28.3% exposed to umbilical cord milking and 19.1% exposed to delayed cord clamping, with an aOR that was similar between groups (aOR 1.45, 95% CI 0.93, 2.26). Infants exposed to umbilical cord milking had higher odds of severe IVH (19.8% umbilical cord milking vs 11.8% delayed cord clamping, aOR 1.70 95% CI 1.20, 2.43), as did the 25-286/7 week stratum (14.8% umbilical cord milking vs 7.4% delayed cord clamping, aOR 1.89 95% CI 1.22, 2.95). Other secondary outcomes were similar between groups. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis of extremely preterm infants suggests that delayed cord clamping is the preferred practice for placental transfusion, as umbilical cord milking exposure was associated with an increase in the adverse outcome of severe IVH. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00063063.

A Systematic Review of Surveys for Measuring Patient-centered Care in the Hospital Setting.

BACKGROUND: Patient-centered care (PCC) is a core component of quality care and its measurement is fundamental for research and improvement efforts. However, an inventory of surveys for measuring PCC in hospitals, a core care setting, is not available. OBJECTIVE: To identify surveys for assessing PCC in hospitals, assess PCC dimensions that they capture, report their psychometric properties, and evaluate applicability to individual and/or dyadic (eg, mother-infant pairs in pregnancy) patients. RESEARCH DESIGN: We conducted a systematic review of articles published before January 2019 available on PubMed, Web of Science, and EBSCO Host and references of extracted papers to identify surveys used to measure "patient-centered care" or "family-centered care." Surveys used in hospitals and capturing at least 3 dimensions of PCC, as articulated by the Picker Institute, were included and reviewed in full. Surveys' descriptions, subscales, PCC dimensions, psychometric properties, and applicability to individual and dyadic patients were assessed. RESULTS: Thirteen of 614 articles met inclusion criteria. Nine surveys were identified, which were designed to obtain assessments from patients/families (n=5), hospital staff (n=2), and both patients/families and hospital staff (n=2). No survey captured all 8 Picker dimensions of PCC [median=6 (range, 5-7)]. Psychometric properties were reported infrequently. All surveys applied to individual patients, none to dyadic patients. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple surveys for measuring PCC in hospitals are available. Opportunities exist to improve survey comprehensiveness regarding dimensions of PCC, reporting of psychometric properties, and development of measures to capture PCC for dyadic patients.

Black-White disparities in maternal in-hospital mortality according to teaching and Black-serving hospital status.

BACKGROUND: Maternal mortality is higher among Black than White people in the United States. Whether Black-White disparities in maternal in-hospital mortality during the delivery hospitalization vary across hospital types (Black-serving vs nonBlack-serving and teaching vs nonteaching) and whether overall maternal mortality differs across hospital types is not known. OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to determine whether risk-adjusted Black-White disparities in maternal mortality during the delivery hospitalization vary by hospital types (this is analysis of disparities in mortality within hospital types) and compare risk-adjusted in-hospital maternal mortality among Black-serving and nonBlack-serving teaching and nonteaching hospitals regardless of race (this is an analysis of overall mortality across hospital types). STUDY DESIGN: We performed a population-based, retrospective cohort study of 5,679,044 deliveries among Black (14.2%) and White patients (85.8%) in 3 states (California, Missouri, and Pennsylvania) from 1995 to 2009. A hospital discharge disposition of "death" defined maternal in-hospital mortality. Black-serving hospitals had at least 7% Black obstetrical patients (top quartile). We performed risk adjustment by calculating expected death rates using predictions from logistic regression models incorporating sociodemographics, rurality, comorbidities, multiple gestations, gestational age at delivery, year, state, and mode of delivery. We calculated risk-adjusted risk ratios of mortality by comparing observed-to-expected ratios among Black and White patients within hospital types and then examined mortality across hospital types, regardless of patient race. We quantified the proportion of Black-White disparities in mortality attributable to delivering in Black-serving hospitals using causal mediation analysis. RESULTS: There were 330 maternal deaths among 5,679,044 patients (5.8 per 100,000). Black patients died more often (11.5 per 100,000) than White patients (4.8 per 100,000) (relative risk, 2.38; 95% confidence interval, 1.89-2.98). Examination of Black-White disparities revealed that after risk adjustment, Black patients had significantly greater risk of death (adjusted relative risk, 1.44; 95% confidence interval, 1.17-1.79) and that the disparity was similar within each of the hospital types. Comparison of mortality, regardless of race, across hospital types revealed that among teaching hospitals, mortality was similar in Black-serving and nonBlack-serving hospitals. However, among nonteaching hospitals, mortality was significantly higher in Black-serving vs nonBlack-serving hospitals (adjusted relative risk, 1.47; 95% confidence interval, 1.15-1.87). Notably, 53% of Black patients delivered in nonteaching, Black-serving hospitals compared with just 19% of White patients. Among nonteaching hospitals, 47% of Black-White disparities in maternal in-hospital mortality were attributable to delivering at Black-serving hospitals. CONCLUSION: Maternal in-hospital mortality during the delivery hospitalization among Black patients is more than double that of White patients. Our data suggest this disparity is caused by excess mortality among Black patients within each hospital type, in addition to excess mortality in nonteaching, Black-serving hospitals where most Black patients deliver. Addressing downstream effects of racism to achieve equity in maternal in-hospital mortality will require transparent reporting of quality metrics by race to reduce differential care and outcomes within hospital types, improvements in care delivery at Black-serving hospitals, overcoming barriers to accessing high-quality care among Black patients, and eventually desegregation of healthcare.

Identifying individual hospital levels of maternal care using administrative data.

BACKGROUND: The goal of regionalized perinatal care, specifically levels of maternal care, is to improve maternal outcomes through risk-appropriate obstetric care. Studies of levels of maternal care are limited by current approaches to identify a hospital's level of care, often relying on hospital self-reported data, which is expensive and challenging to collect and validate. The study objective was to develop an empiric approach to determine a hospital's level of maternal care using administrative data reflective of the patient care provided and apply this approach to describe the levels of maternal care available over time. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of mother-infant dyads who delivered in California, Missouri, and Pennsylvania hospitals from 2000 to 2009. Linked mother-infant administrative records with an infant born at 24-44 weeks' gestation and a birth weight of 400-8000 g were included. Using the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the Society for Maternal Fetal Medicine descriptions of levels of maternal care, four levels were classified based on the appropriate location of care for patients with specific medical or pregnancy conditions. Individual hospitals were assigned a level of maternal care annually based on the volume of patients who delivered reflective of the four classified levels as determined by International Classification of Diseases and Current Procedural Terminology. RESULTS: Based on the included 6,895,000 mother-infant dyads, the obstetric hospital levels of maternal care I, II, III and IV were identified. High-risk patients more frequently delivered in hospitals with higher level maternal care, accounting for 8.9, 10.9, 13.8, and 16.9% of deliveries in level I, II, III and IV hospitals, respectively. The total number of obstetric hospitals decreased over the study period, while the proportion of hospitals with high-level (level III or IV) maternal care increased. High-level hospitals were located in more densely populated areas. CONCLUSION: Identification of the level of maternal care, independent of hospital self-reported variables, is feasible using administrative data. This empiric approach, which accounts for changes in hospitals over time, is a valuable framework for perinatal researchers and other stakeholders to inexpensively identify measurable benefits of levels of maternal care and characterize where specific patient populations receive care.

Protocol adherence rates in superiority and noninferiority randomized clinical trials published in high impact medical journals.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Noninferiority clinical trials are susceptible to false confirmation of noninferiority when the intention-to-treat principle is applied in the setting of incomplete trial protocol adherence. The risk increases as protocol adherence rates decrease. The objective of this study was to compare protocol adherence and hypothesis confirmation between superiority and noninferiority randomized clinical trials published in three high impact medical journals. We hypothesized that noninferiority trials have lower protocol adherence and greater hypothesis confirmation. METHODS: We conducted an observational study using published clinical trial data. We searched PubMed for active control, two-arm parallel group randomized clinical trials published in JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, The New England Journal of Medicine, and The Lancet between 2007 and 2017. The primary exposure was trial type, superiority versus noninferiority, as determined by the hypothesis testing framework of the primary trial outcome. The primary outcome was trial protocol adherence rate, defined as the number of randomized subjects receiving the allocated intervention as described by the trial protocol and followed to primary outcome ascertainment (numerator), over the total number of subjects randomized (denominator). Hypothesis confirmation was defined as affirmation of noninferiority or the alternative hypothesis for noninferiority and superiority trials, respectively. RESULTS: Among 120 superiority and 120 noninferiority trials, median and interquartile protocol adherence rates were 91.5 [81.4-96.7] and 89.8 [83.6-95.2], respectively; P = 0.47. Hypothesis confirmation was observed in 107/120 (89.2%) of noninferiority and 64/120 (53.3%) of superiority trials, risk difference (95% confidence interval): 35.8 (25.3-46.3), P < 0.001. CONCLUSION: Protocol adherence rates are similar between superiority and noninferiority trials published in three high impact medical journals. Despite this, we observed greater hypothesis confirmation among noninferiority trials. We speculate that publication bias, lenient noninferiority margins and other sources of bias may contribute to this finding. Further study is needed to identify the reasons for this observed difference.

Incidence Trends and Risk Factor Variation in Severe Intraventricular Hemorrhage across a Population Based Cohort.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the current burden of severe intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), describe time trends in severe IVH, identify IVH-associated risk factors, and determine the contribution of mediating factors. STUDY DESIGN: The retrospective cohort included infants 220/7-316/7 weeks of gestation without severe congenital anomalies, born at hospitals in the California Perinatal Quality Care Collaborative between 2005 and 2015. The primary study outcome was severe (grade III or IV) IVH. RESULTS: Of 44 028 infants, 3371 (7.7%) had severe IVH. The incidence of severe IVH decreased significantly across California from 9.7% in 2005 to 5.9% in 2015. After stratification by gestational age, antenatal steroid exposure was the only factor associated with a decreased odds of severe IVH for all gestational age subgroups. Other factors, including delivery room intubation, were associated with an increased odds of severe IVH, though significance varied by gestational age. Factors analyzed in the mediation analysis accounted for 45.6% (95% CI 38.7%-71.8%) of the reduction in severe IVH, with increased antenatal steroid administration and decreased delivery room intubation mediating a significant proportion of this decrease, 19.4% (95% CI 13.9%-27.5%) and 27.3% (95% CI 20.3%-39.2%), respectively. The unaccounted proportion varied by gestational age. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of severe IVH decreased across California, associated with changes in antenatal steroid exposure and delivery room intubation. Maternal, patient, and delivery room factors accounted for less than one-half of the decrease in severe IVH. Study of other factors, specifically neonatal intensive care unit and hospital-level factors, may provide new insights into policies to reduce severe IVH.

Kinematic analysis of hip and knee rotation and other contributors to ballet turnout.

Turnout, or external rotation (ER) of the lower extremities, is essential in ballet. The purpose of this study was to utilise physical examination and a biomechanical method for obtaining functional kinematic data using hip and knee joint centres to identify the relative turnout contributions from hip rotation, femoral anteversion, knee rotation, tibial torsion, and other sources. Ten female dancers received a lower extremity alignment assessment, including passive hip rotation, femoral anteversion, tibial torsion, weightbearing foot alignment, and Beighton hypermobility score. Next, turnout was assessed using plantar pressure plots and three-dimensional motion analysis; participants performed turnout to ballet first position on both a plantar pressure mat and friction-reducing discs. A retro-reflective functional marker motion capture system mapped the lower extremities and hip and knee joint centres. Mean total turnout was 129±15.7° via plantar pressure plots and 135±17.8° via kinematics. Bilateral hip ER during turnout was 49±10.2° (36% of total turnout). Bilateral knee ER during turnout was 41±5.9° (32% of total turnout). Hip ER contribution to total turnout measured kinematically was less than expected compared to other studies, where hip ER was determined without functional kinematic data. Knee ER contributed substantially more turnout than expected or previously reported. This analysis method allows precise assessment of turnout contributors.

The impact of volume and neonatal level of care on outcomes of moderate and late preterm infants.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the relationship of neonatal unit level of care (LOC) and volume with mortality or morbidity in moderate-late preterm (MLP) (32-36 weeks' gestation) infants. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of 650,865 inborn MLP infants in 4976 hospitals-years using 2003-2015 linked administrative data from 4 states. Exposure was combined neonatal LOC and MLP annual volume. The primary outcome was death or morbidity (respiratory distress syndrome, severe intraventricular hemorrhage, necrotizing enterocolitis, sepsis, infection, pneumothorax, extreme length of stay) with components as secondary outcomes. Poisson regression models adjusted for patient characteristics with a random effect for unit were used. RESULTS: In adjusted models, high-volume level 2 units had a lower risk of the primary outcome compared to low-volume level 3 units (aIRR 0.90 [95% CI 0.83-0.98] vs. aIRR 1.13 [95% CI 1.03-1.24], p < 0.001) CONCLUSION: MLP infants had improved outcomes in high-volume level 2 units compared to low-volume level 3 units in adjusted analysis.

Transfer Patterns Among Infants Born at 28 to 34 Weeks' Gestation.

BACKGROUND: Although postnatal transfer patterns among high-risk (eg, extremely preterm or surgical) infants have been described, transfer patterns among lower-risk populations are unknown. The objective was to examine transfer frequency, indication, timing, and trajectory among very and moderate preterm infants. METHODS: Observational study of the US Vermont Oxford Network all NICU admissions database from 2016 to 2021 of inborn infants 280/7 to 346/7 weeks. Infants' first transfer was assessed by gestational age, age at transfer, reason for transfer, and transfer trajectory. RESULTS: Across 467 hospitals, 294 229 infants were eligible, of whom 12 552 (4.3%) had an initial disposition of transfer. The proportion of infants transferred decreased with increasing gestational age (9.6% [n = 1415] at 28 weeks vs 2.4% [n = 2646] at 34 weeks) as did the median age at time of transfer (47 days [interquartile range 30-73] at 28 weeks vs 8 days [interquartile range 3-16] at 34 weeks). The median post menstrual age at transfer was 34 or 35 weeks across all gestational ages. The most common reason for transfer was growth or discharge planning (45.0%) followed by medical and diagnostic services (30.2%), though this varied by gestation. In this cohort, 42.7% of transfers were to a higher-level unit, 10.2% to a same-level unit, and 46.7% to a lower-level unit, with indication reflecting access to specific services. CONCLUSIONS: Over 4% of very and moderate preterm infants are transferred. In this population, the median age of transfer is later and does not reflect immediate care needs after birth, but rather the provision of risk-appropriate care.

National Variation in Black Immigrant Preterm Births and the Role of County-Level Social Factors.

Preterm birth rates among Black individuals continue to be inequitably high in the USA. Black immigrants appear to have a preterm birth advantage over US-born counterparts. This national cross-sectional study of singleton non-Hispanic Black individuals in the USA from 2011 to 2018 aimed to investigate if the Black immigrant preterm birth advantage varied geographically and how this advantage associated with county-level social drivers of health. Generalized linear mixed models explored the odds of preterm birth (< 37 weeks) by birthing person's nativity, defined as US- versus foreign-born. In county-level analyses, five measures were explored as possible sources of structural risk for or resilience against preterm birth: percent of residents in poverty, percent uninsured, percent with more than a high school education, percent foreign-born, and racial polarization. County-level immigrant advantage among foreign-born compared to US-born Black individuals was defined by a disparity rate ratio (RR); RR < 1 indicated a county-level immigrant preterm birth advantage. Linear regression models at the level of counties quantified associations between county-level factors and disparity RRs. Among 4,072,326 non-Hispanic Black birthing individuals, immigrants had 24% lower adjusted odds of preterm birth compared to US-born Black individuals (aOR 0.77, 95% CI 0.76-0.78). In county-level analyses, the immigrant advantage varied across counties; disparity RRs ranged from 0.13 to 2.82. County-level lack of health insurance and education greater than high school were both associated with immigrant preterm birth advantage. Future research should explore policies within counties that impact risk of preterm birth for both US-born and immigrant Black individuals.

Preterm Birth Risk and Maternal Nativity, Ethnicity, and Race.

Importance: Immigrant birthing people have lower rates of preterm birth compared with their US-born counterparts. This advantage and associated racial and ethnic disparities across the gestational age spectrum have not been examined nationally. Objective: To examine associations of maternal nativity, ethnicity, and race with preterm birth. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study used birth certificates from the National Vital Statistics System to analyze in-hospital liveborn singleton births in the US between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2018. Data were analyzed from January to June 2023. Exposure: Mutually exclusive nativity, ethnicity, and race subgroups were constructed using nativity (defined as US-born or non-US-born), ethnicity (defined as Hispanic or non-Hispanic), and race (defined as American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Black, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, White, or other [individuals who selected other race or more than 1 race]). Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome of interest was preterm birth. Modified Poisson and multinomial logistic regression models quantified relative risk (RR) of preterm birth overall (<37 weeks' gestation) and by gestational category (late preterm: 34-36 weeks' gestation; moderately preterm: 29-33 weeks' gestation; and extremely preterm: <29 weeks' gestation) for each maternal nativity, ethnicity, and race subgroup compared with the largest group, US-born non-Hispanic White (hereafter, White) birthing people. The RR of preterm birth overall and by category was also measured within each racial and ethnic group by nativity. Models were adjusted for maternal demographic and medical covariates, birth year, and birth state. Results: A total of 34 468 901 singleton live births of birthing people were analyzed, with a mean (SD) age at delivery of 28 (6) years. All nativity, ethnicity, and race subgroups had an increased adjusted risk of preterm birth compared with US-born White birthing people except for non-US-born White (adjusted RR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.84-0.86) and Hispanic (adjusted RR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.97-0.98) birthing people. All racially and ethnically minoritized groups had increased adjusted risks of extremely preterm birth compared with US-born White birthing people. Non-US-born individuals had a decreased risk of preterm birth within each subgroup except non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander individuals, in which immigrants had significantly increased risk of overall (adjusted RR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.01-1.14), moderately (adjusted RR, 1.10; 95% CI, 0.92-1.30), and late (adjusted RR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.02-1.22) preterm birth than their US-born counterparts. Conclusions and Relevance: Results of this cohort study suggest heterogeneity of preterm birth across maternal nativity, ethnicity, and race and gestational age categories. Understanding these patterns could aid the design of targeted preterm birth interventions and policies, especially for birthing people typically underrepresented in research.

Development and testing of a resuscitation-specific measure of organizational culture for resuscitation teams.

Background: The organizational culture (shared beliefs, perceptions, and values) of teams informs their behaviours and practices. Little is known about organizational culture for resuscitation teams. Our objective was to develop a reliable and valid resuscitation-specific organizational culture instrument (ROCI) with the goal of improving team performance. Methods: Using Neonatal Resuscitation Program principles, literature review, and discussion of existing culture measures with experts, we identified organizational culture components for resuscitation and adapted existing measures to resuscitation. We developed a ROCI with five subscales (role clarity, shared-mental models, closed-loop communication, team adaptability, and psychological safety) and administered it to neonatal resuscitation team members across a hospital network. Survey psychometric assessment included reliability analyses (Cronbach's α, Pearson correlation coefficients) and validity testing (confirmatory factor analysis [CFA] and regression models examining the association of culture with implementation outcomes: climate and perceived success). Results: Across 11 hospitals there were 318 complete responses (41 % response rate). Of the 22-items tested, 18 were retained after iterative psychometric assessment. The ROCI had excellent overall reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.994) and very good subscale reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.789-0.867). The CFA goodness-of-fit statistics confirmed five constructs (subscales). At the individual-level, the ROCI and all subscales were associated with both implementation outcomes. At the hospital-level, the ROCI overall and three subscales were associated with perceived success. Conclusion: The ROCI is a reliable and valid measure of the organizational culture of resuscitation teams. Future ROCI assessments may provide a foundation to inform culture change initiatives to improve resuscitation quality and outcomes across populations and contexts.

Inter-hospital Variation in COVID-19 Era Pediatric Hospitalizations by Age Group and Diagnosis.

BACKGROUND: Mitigation strategies and public responses to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) varied geographically and may have differentially affected burden of pediatric disease and hospitalization practices. We aimed to quantify hospital-specific variation in hospitalizations during the COVID-19 era. METHODS: Using Pediatric Health Information Systems data from 44 Children's Hospitals, this retrospective multicenter analysis compared hospitalizations of children (1 day-17 years) from the COVID-19 era (March 1, 2020-June 30, 2021) to prepandemic (January 1, 2017-December 31, 2019). Variation in the magnitude of hospital-specific decline between eras was determined using coefficients of variation (CV). Spearman's test was used to assess correlation of variation with community and hospital factors. RESULTS: The COVID-19 era decline in hospitalizations varied between hospitals (CV 0.41) and was moderately correlated with declines in respiratory infection hospitalizations (r = 0.69, P < .001). There was no correlation with community or hospital factors. COVID-19 era changes in hospitalizations for mental health conditions varied widely between centers (CV 2.58). Overall, 22.7% of hospitals saw increased admissions for adolescents, and 29.5% saw increases for newborns 1 to 14 days, representing significant center-specific variation (CV 2.30 for adolescents and 1.98 for newborns). CONCLUSIONS: Pandemic-era change in hospitalizations varied across institutions, partially because of hospital-specific changes in respiratory infections. Residual variation exists for mental health conditions and in groups least likely to be admitted for respiratory infections, suggesting that noninfectious conditions may be differentially and uniquely affected by local policies and hospital-specific practices enacted during the COVID-19 era.

Association Between Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Type and Quality of Care in Moderate and Late Preterm Infants.

Importance: A higher level of care improves outcomes in extremely and very preterm infants, yet the impact of neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) level on moderate and late preterm (MLP) care quality is unknown. Objective: To examine the association between NICU type and care quality in MLP (30-36 weeks' gestation) and extremely and very preterm (25-29 weeks' gestation) infants. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study was a prospective analysis of 433 814 premature infants born in 465 US hospitals between January 1, 2016, and December 31, 2020, without anomalies and who survived more than 12 hours and were transferred no more than once. Data were from the Vermont Oxford Network all NICU admissions database. Exposures: NICU types were defined as units with ventilation restrictions without surgery (type A with restrictions, similar to American Academy of Pediatrics [AAP] level 2 NICUs), without surgery (type A) and with surgery not requiring cardiac bypass (type B, similar to AAP level 3 NICUs), and with all surgery (type C, similar to AAP level 4 NICUs). Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was gestational age (GA)-specific composite quality measures using Baby-Measure of Neonatal Intensive Care Outcomes Research (Baby-MONITOR) for extremely and very preterm infants and an adapted MLP quality measure for MLP infants. Secondary outcomes were individual component measures of each scale. Composite scores were standardized observed minus expected scores, adjusted for patient characteristics, averaged, and expressed with a mean of 0 and SD of 1. Between May 2021 and October 2022, Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare scores by NICU type. Results: Among the 376 219 MLP (204 181 [54.3%] male, 172 038 [45.7%] female; mean [SD] GA, 34.2 [1.7] weeks) and 57 595 extremely and very preterm (30 173 [52.4%] male, 27 422 [47.6%] female; mean [SD] GA, 27.7 [1.4] weeks) infants included, 6.6% received care in type A NICUs with restrictions, 29.3% in type A NICUs without restrictions, 39.7% in type B NICUs, and 24.4% in type C NICUs. The MLP infants had lower MLP-QM scores in type C NICUs (median [IQR]: type A with restrictions, 0.4 [-0.1 to 0.8]; type A, 0.4 [-0.4 to 0.9]; type B, 0.1 [-0.7 to 0.7]; type C, -0.7 [-1.6 to 0.4]; P < .001). No significant differences were found in extremely and very preterm Baby-MONITOR scores by NICU type. In type C NICUs, MLP infants had lower scores in no extreme length of stay and change-in-weight z score. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study, composite quality scores were lower for MLP infants in type C NICUs, whereas extremely and very preterm composite quality scores were similar across NICU types. Policies facilitating care for MLP infants at NICUs with less complex subspecialty services may improve care quality delivered to this prevalent, at-risk population.

Perinatal Care Measures Are Incomplete If They Do Not Assess The Birth Parent-Infant Dyad As A Whole.

Measures of perinatal care quality and outcomes often focus on either the birth parent or the infant. We used linked vital statistics and hospital discharge data to describe a dyadic measure (including both the birth parent and the infant) for perinatal care during the birth hospitalization. In this five-state cohort of 2010-18 births, 21.6 percent of birth parent-infant dyads experienced at least one complication, and 9.6 percent experienced a severe complication. Severe infant complications were eight times more prevalent than severe birth parent complications. Among birth parents with a severe complication, the co-occurrence of a severe infant complication ranged from 2 percent to 51 percent, whereas among infants with a severe complication, the co-occurrence of a severe birth parent complication was rare, ranging from 0.04 percent to 5 percent. These data suggest that measures, clinical interventions, public reporting, and policies focused on either the birth parent or the infant are incomplete in their assessment of a healthy dyad. Thus, clinicians, administrators, and policy makers should evaluate dyadic measures, incentivize positive outcomes for both patients (parent and infant), and create policies that support the health of the dyad.

Obstetric Volume and Severe Maternal Morbidity Among Low-Risk and Higher-Risk Patients Giving Birth at Rural and Urban US Hospitals.

Importance: Identifying hospital factors associated with severe maternal morbidity (SMM) is essential to clinical and policy efforts. Objective: To assess associations between obstetric volume and SMM in rural and urban hospitals and examine whether these associations differ for low-risk and higher-risk patients. Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cross-sectional study of linked vital statistics and patient discharge data was conducted from 2022 to 2023. Live births and stillbirths (≥20 weeks' gestation) at hospitals in California (2004-2018), Michigan (2004-2020), Pennsylvania (2004-2014), and South Carolina (2004-2020) were included. Data were analyzed from December 2022 to May 2023. Exposures: Annual birth volume categories (low, medium, medium-high, and high) for hospitals in urban (10-500, 501-1000, 1001-2000, and >2000) and rural (10-110, 111-240, 241-460, and >460) counties. Main Outcome and Measures: The main outcome was SMM (excluding blood transfusion); covariates included age, payer status, educational attainment, race and ethnicity, and obstetric comorbidities. Analyses were stratified for low-risk and higher-risk obstetric patients based on presence of at least 1 clinical comorbidity. Results: Among more than 11 million urban births and 519 953 rural births, rates of SMM ranged from 0.73% to 0.50% across urban hospital volume categories (high to low) and from 0.47% to 0.70% across rural hospital volume categories (high to low). Risk of SMM was elevated for patients who gave birth at rural hospitals with annual birth volume of 10 to 110 (adjusted risk ratio [ARR], 1.65; 95% CI, 1.14-2.39), 111 to 240 (ARR, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.10-1.70), and 241 to 460 (ARR, 1.26; 95% CI, 1.05-1.51), compared with rural hospitals with greater than 460 births. Increased risk of SMM occurred for low-risk and higher-risk obstetric patients who delivered at rural hospitals with lower birth volumes, with low-risk rural patients having notable discrepancies in SMM risk between low (ARR, 2.32; 95% CI, 1.32-4.07), medium (ARR, 1.66; 95% CI, 1.20-2.28), and medium-high (ARR, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.29-2.18) volume hospitals compared with high volume (>460 births) rural hospitals. Among hospitals in urban counties, there was no significant association between birth volume and SMM for low-risk or higher-risk obstetric patients. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study of births in US rural and urban counties, risk of SMM was elevated for low-risk and higher-risk obstetric patients who gave birth in lower-volume hospitals in rural counties, compared with similar patients who gave birth at rural hospitals with greater than 460 annual births. These findings imply a need for tailored quality improvement strategies for lower volume hospitals in rural communities.