Avascular Necrosis of the Scaphoid-Preiser Disease: Outcomes of 39 Surgical Cases.

PURPOSE: There is no established treatment standard for patients with idiopathic avascular necrosis of the scaphoid, also known as Preiser Disease. We evaluated outcomes of operative interventions performed for patients diagnosed with Preiser Disease and assessed scaphoid morphology in the contralateral wrists. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of all patients undergoing surgery for Preiser disease between 1987 and 2019 at our institution. A total of 39 wrists in 38 patients were identified. The mean age was 37 years at the time of surgery, and the median follow-up time was 5.3 years. The patients were classified according to the Herbert and Kalainov classifications. Pre- and postoperative pain and functional outcomes were evaluated, and Mayo Wrist Scores were calculated. Reoperations for complications were recorded. Scaphoid shapes were assessed for wide/type 1 and slender/type 2 scaphoids in the contralateral unaffected wrist in patients with unilateral disease. RESULTS: Overall, pain and Mayo Wrist Scores improved, while flexion/extension decreased slightly and grip strength remained stable. In a comparison of the 2 main surgery groups, 17 wrists with a pedicled vascular bone graft and 12 wrists with salvage surgery (4-corner fusion/proximal row carpectomy) showed similar functional outcomes. Similar outcome scores were found regardless of preoperative Herbert or Kalainov classifications. Radiographic morphologic evaluation of the contralateral side determined that 4 of 8 patients had a slender scaphoid shape, which has been shown to have a more limited vascular network when compared to full scaphoids. CONCLUSIONS: A treatment algorithm of Preiser disease is lacking and the optimal surgical treatment remains controversial. Pedicled vascular bone grafts had similar functional outcomes as salvage procedures, but preserving the scaphoid was possible in 70% of the pedicled vascular bone graft cases. A slender scaphoid is potentially more common in patients with Preiser disease who undergo surgery. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic IV.

The Medial Femoral Condyle Free Flap for Reconstruction of Recalcitrant Defects in the Head and Neck.

BACKGROUND: Small recalcitrant defects of the mandible and maxilla may be secondary to tumor, trauma, infection, and congenital origin. Vascularized bone grafting has been shown to effectively manage these defects; however, donor sites are limited. The vascularized medial femoral condyle (MFC) provides adequate cortical cancellous bone with the option of a skin island, consistent anatomy, and minimal donor site morbidity. This article outlines the use of the MFC flap for maxillomandibular reconstruction. METHODS: A retrospective chart review of patients who required segmental maxillomandibular reconstruction with the MFC flap was conducted. A total of 9 patients (5 men and 5 women) with an average age of 45.3 years were identified. The etiology of the defects, flap sizes, and postoperative outcomes were recorded. RESULTS: Three patients had osteoradionecrosis of the neomandible after irradiation of the free fibula reconstruction, 3 patients had defects after cancer extirpation (1 mandible, 2 maxillary), 1 patient had a maxillary defect from trauma, and 2 patients had a residual cleft palate defect. All defects failed initial treatment with nonvascularized bone grafts. The average dimensions of the MFC flaps were 1.2 × 2.5 × 4 cm. Two of 9 flaps included a skin island. Eight flaps survived completely, but 1 patient suffered from flap failure requiring debridement and resulted in an oroantral fistula. Four patients received endosseous dental implants. Average time to union was 6.7 months, and average time to implant was 6.75 months. The average follow-up time was 24.9 months. CONCLUSIONS: The MFC flap is useful in the reconstruction of small segmental maxillomandibular defects and for the salvage of a neomandible after osteoradionecrosis. The MFC flap provides a reliable platform for endosseous dental implants and serves as an alternative source of vascularized bone reconstruction in the head and neck.

Prophylactic Bronchial Stump Support With Intrathoracic Muscle Flap Transposition.

BACKGROUND: Bronchopleural fistula (BPF) is a dreaded complication of pulmonary resection. For high-risk patients, bronchial stump coverage with vascularized tissue has been recommended. The goal of this study was to report our experience with intrathoracic muscle transposition for bronchial stump coverage. METHODS: A retrospective review of all patients who underwent intrathoracic muscle flap transposition as a prophylactic measure at our institution between 1990 and 2010 was conducted. Demographics, surgical characteristics, and complication rates were abstracted and analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 160 patients were identified. The most common lung resections performed were pneumonectomy (n = 69, 43%) and lobectomy (n = 60, 38%). A total of 168 flaps were used where serratus anterior was the most common flap (n = 136, 81%), followed by intercostal (n = 14, 8%), and latissimus dorsi (n = 12, 7%). Ten patients (6%) developed BPF, and empyema occurred in 13 patients (8%). Median survival was 20 months, and operative mortality occurred in 7 patients (4%). CONCLUSIONS: Reinforcement of the bronchial closure with vascularized muscle is a viable option for potentially decreasing the incidence of BPF in high-risk patients. Further randomized studies are needed to determine the efficacy of this technique for BPF prevention.

Ultrasound Vibroelastography for Evaluation of Secondary Extremity Lymphedema: A Clinical Pilot Study.

BACKGROUND: Lymphedema treatment is an ongoing challenge. It impacts quality of life due to pain, loss of range of motion of the extremity, and repeated episodes of cellulitis. Different modalities have been used to evaluate lymphedema; some are more error-prone and some are more invasive. However, these measurements are poorly standardized, and intrarater and interrater reliabilities are difficult to achieve. This pilot study aims to assess the feasibility of ultrasound vibroelastography for assessing patients with extremity lymphedema via measuring shear wave speeds of subcutaneous tissues. METHODS: Patients with clinical and lymphoscintigraphic diagnosis of secondary lymphedema in the extremities without prior surgical treatment were included. A 0.1-s harmonic vibration was generated at three frequencies (100, 150, and 200 Hz) by the indenter of a handheld shaker on the skin. An ultrasound probe was used for noninvasively capturing of wave propagation in the subcutaneous tissue. Wave speeds were measured in the subcutaneous tissues of both the control and affected extremities. RESULTS: A total of 11 female patients with secondary lymphedema in the extremities were enrolled in this study. The magnitudes of the wave speeds of the region of interest in the subcutaneous tissue at lymphedema sites in the upper extremity (3.9 ± 0.17 m/s, 5.96 ± 0.67 m/s, and 7.41 ± 1.09 m/s) were statistically higher than those of the control sites (2.1 ± 0.27 m/s, 2.93 ± 0.57 m/s, and 3.56 ± 0.76 m/s) at 100, 150, and 200 Hz (P < 0.05), and at 100 and 200 Hz (P < 0.05) between lymphedema (4.33 ± 0.35 m/s, 4.17 ± 1.00 m/s, and 4.56 ± 0.37 m/s) and controls sites (2.48 ± 0.43 m/s, 2.77 ± 0.55 m/s, and 3.06 ± 0.29 m/s) in the lower extremity. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary data suggest that ultrasound vibroelastography may be useful in the evaluation of secondary lymphedema and can be a valuable tool to noninvasively track treatment progress.

Combined single-stage enterolysis with pedicle seromuscular bowel flaps, myocutaneous and fasciocutaneous flaps to repair recurrent enterocutaneous fistulas in complex abdominal Wall defects.

INTRODUCTION: Reconstruction of abdominal wall defects with enterocutaneous fistulas (ECF) remains challenging. The purpose of this report is to describe a single-stage approach using combined microscopic enterolysis, pedicle seromuscular bowel flaps, mesh, fasciocutaneous, and myocutaneous flaps. METHODS: Between 1990 and 2016 a retrospective review identified a total of 18 patients with an average age of 39 years (ranging 26-59 years). Thirteen cases were associated with trauma, four were complication of previous mesh repair, and one was after an aortic dissection. Average diameter of defect size was 22 cm (ranging 20-24 cm). Surgical technique involved enterolysis using microscope magnification, a pedicle seromuscular bowel flap to reinforce the bowel anastomosis, mesh, musculocutaneous, and fasciocutaneous flaps to reconstruct the abdominal wall. RESULTS: Fifteen patients required rotational flaps with an average skin paddle area of 442.7 cm2 (ranging 440 cm2 -260 cm2 ) and 10 patients required a serosal patch with an average length of 5 cm (ranging 4-6 cm). Complications included three wound dehiscence and one abdominal wall bulging. Flap survival was 100%. The majority of patients (12 out of 18) were able to resume normal activities, and the remaining (n = 6) were able to resume most activities. Functional outcome as assessed by 36-Item Short Form Survey (SF-36) physical function component questionnaire at 18-24 months follow up was 67.8% (ranging from 59 to 72%). Mean length of hospital stay was 2.2 weeks (ranging 1.4-2.7 weeks). Mean follow-up was 24 months (ranging 22-26 months) with clinical examination. CONCLUSION: Microscopically assisted intra-abdominal dissection with resection of diseased bowel, replacement with well-vascularized tissue at the anastomosis site in, and reinforcement with mesh combined with pedicle musculocutaneous and fasciocutaneous flaps may be an alternative when other local reconstructive options have failed.

Comparisons in long-term clinical outcomes among patients with upper or lower extremity lymphedema treated with diverse vascularized lymph node transfer.

BACKGROUND: Vascularized lymph node transfer (VLNT) is an emerging surgical treatment for lymphedema. However, literature-comparing outcomes of upper limb lymphedema (ULL) and lower limb lymphedema (LLL) is limited. Hence, the aim of this study is to compare the long-term clinical outcomes on ULL versus LLL in patients treated with VLNT. METHODS: A retrospective study retrieving data from patients with International Society of Lymphology (ISL) stages II-III who underwent different VLNTs from July 2010 to July 2016 in our institution was performed. Demographics preoperatively, and clinical data (limb circumference, infectious episodes, lymphoscintigraphic studies) preoperatively and postoperatively were recorded. Clinical outcomes by extremity were also analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 83 patients with lymphedema (ULL: n = 30, LLL: n = 53) were included. Mean follow-up time was 32.8 months (range 24-49 months). Mean circumference reduction was higher in patients with ULL compared to with LLL (28.6 ± 8.6 vs. 22.3 ± 10.1, p < .001), and for patients with secondary lymphedema (24.8 ± 9.6, p < .001) than for patients with primary lymphedema (18.9 ± 14, p > .05). Infectious episodes per year preoperative and postoperative showed that LLL patients had higher reduction on infection rate compared with ULL patients (2.4 ± 1.1 vs. 1.9 ± 1.2, p < .001). CONCLUSION: VLNT is a promising surgical treatment option for patients with lymphedema. This study suggests that VLNT may have a more beneficial outcome in patients with ULL and with secondary lymphedema.

Comprehensive multimodal surgical treatment of end-stage lower extremity lymphedema with toe management: The combined Charles,' Homan's, and vascularized lymph node transfer (CHAHOVA) procedures.

BACKGROUND: End-stage lower extremity lymphedema (LEL) poses a particularly formidable challenge to surgeons as multiple pathological processes are at work. Because single modality treatment is often unsuccessful, we devised a comprehensive multimodal surgical treatment. The aim of this study is to share the technical considerations and examine the clinical outcomes of this combined approach. METHODS: Between 2013 and 2017, patients with International Society of Lymphology stage III, who underwent the combination treatment of Charles,' Homan's procedure with toe management and vascularized lymph node transfer (CHAHOVA), were included in this retrospective study. Outcomes evaluated were limb size, number of infectious episodes, compression garment usage, and rate of complications. RESULTS: A total of 68 patients were included. With a mean follow-up of 29 months, the overall circumference reduction rate for the upper thigh and the rest of the extremity was 67.4% (48.2-88.2%) and 98.1% (88-100%), respectively. During the follow-ups, 2 (2.9%) patients experienced episodes of cellulitis and the average number of yearly infections decreased from 4.2 to 1.2 episodes per person. All patients were able to discontinue compression therapy without recurrence of lymphedema. Nine (13.2%) patients reported minor complications. CONCLUSION: The combine CHAHOVA in a single-stage procedure is an effective and safe approach in the end-stage LEL.

Surgical Management of Lower Extremity Lymphedema: A Comprehensive Review.

Lymphedema refers to the accumulation of protein-rich fluid in the interstitial spaces. This can occur secondary to congenital malformation of the lymphatic channels or nodes or as a result of an insult that damages appropriately formed channels and nodes. Stagnant, protein-rich lymph initiates an inflammatory response that leads to adipocyte proliferation, fibrous tissue deposition, and increased susceptibility to infections. The end result is permanent disfigurement and dermal changes. Early and accurate diagnosis is essential, since lymphedema is a chronic and progressive problem. When lymphedema affects the lower extremity, it is important to manage it in a way that preserves function and mobility. Early diagnosis also allows for a proactive rather than reactive approach to treatment and utilization of novel physiologic procedures, such as lymphovenous anastomosis and vascularized lymph node transfer. Such interventions slow down disease progression and reduce morbidity by allowing the surgeon to salvage the remaining functional lymphatic channels. When physiologic procedures fail or when faced with a delayed presentation, the addition of excisional procedures can provide a more comprehensive treatment of this debilitating disease. The aim of this article is to review the most current concepts in the surgical management of lower extremity lymphedema.

Staged inset of free flaps for complex microsurgical head and neck reconstruction to ensure total flap survival.

INTRODUCTION: Microsurgical reconstruction of complex head and neck defects often requires reliable tissue in multiple spatial configurations to achieve good functional and aesthetic outcomes. In addition to robust perforators, flap inset and wound closure require great caution to minimize complications especially in the presence of trismus with limited space for inset. This report describes the technique and results of our staged approach to flap inset which increases the chance of total flap survival in complex head and neck reconstructions. METHODS: From February 2010 to August 2016, a total of 53 patients were identified via a retrospective chart review. Patients who were suspected to have a high risk of vascular compromise and subsequently underwent complex head and neck reconstruction with staged inset of anterolateral thigh (ALT) flaps were included. The flap was inset only partially at the recipient site initially with fewer sutures. At a second stage, after neovascularization from surrounding tissue was established, the flap was partially elevated, divided and mobilized on its own pedicle for definitive inset. RESULTS: Fifty-one patients had complete survival of flaps and had uneventful postoperative course. Six cases required immediate re-exploration to release wound tension or reposition the pedicle. Of these, 4 flaps were salvaged, 2 failed due to small perforators despite anastomosis revision. The flap survival rate was 96.2% and the average time between 2 stages was 24 days (range, 21-28). CONCLUSION: Staged flap inset can improve free flap survival in complex head and neck reconstructions.

The radial forearm free flap as a "vascular bridge" for secondary microsurgical head and neck reconstruction in a vessel-depleted neck.

BACKGROUND: In a vessel-depleted neck, distant recipient sites may be the only option for secondary free flap reconstruction. While interposition vein grafts and arteriovenous loops can bridge the gap between the recipient and donor pedicle, they are not without risks. In these scenarios, we examinate the reliablity of a radial forearm free flap (RFFF) as an alternative vascular conduit. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A retrospective review of cases between March 2005 and May 2016 was performed. Demographic data, prior surgical history, intraoperative details and outcomes were recorded. A total of ten patients, eight male and two female, with a mean age of 54.2 years (range, 39-74) were identified. The RFFF was initially anastomosed to either the thoracoacromial (n = 6) or internal mammary vessels (n = 4) and subsequently served as the recipient pedicle for the second "main" flap, an anterolateral thigh (n = 4), jejunum (n = 3) or fibula flap (n = 3). RESULTS: The average RFFF dimensions were 13.8 cm by 5.8 cm. All twenty flaps, ten RFFF and ten "main' flaps survived completely with only one case of minimal epidermal loss. One patient with esophageal reconstruction with jejunum developed a fistula that required closure with a local falp. At a mean follow-up of 18.4 months (range 8-29), the reconstructive goals had been achieved in all cases. CONCLUSIONS: The RFFF serves as a reliable "vascular bridge" that extends the reach of distant recipient sites to free flaps in secondary head and neck reconstruction.

Conserved epigenetic sensitivity to early life experience in the rat and human hippocampus.

Early life experience is associated with long-term effects on behavior and epigenetic programming of the NR3C1 (GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR) gene in the hippocampus of both rats and humans. However, it is unlikely that such effects completely capture the evolutionarily conserved epigenetic mechanisms of early adaptation to environment. Here we present DNA methylation profiles spanning 6.5 million base pairs centered at the NR3C1 gene in the hippocampus of humans who experienced abuse as children and nonabused controls. We compare these profiles to corresponding DNA methylation profiles in rats that received differential levels of maternal care. The profiles of both species reveal hundreds of DNA methylation differences associated with early life experience distributed across the entire region in nonrandom patterns. For instance, methylation differences tend to cluster by genomic location, forming clusters covering as many as 1 million bases. Even more surprisingly, these differences seem to specifically target regulatory regions such as gene promoters, particularly those of the protocadherin α, ß, and γ gene families. Beyond these high-level similarities, more detailed analyses reveal methylation differences likely stemming from the significant biological and environmental differences between species. These results provide support for an analogous cross-species epigenetic regulatory response at the level of the genomic region to early life experience.

Pentamidine-loaded gelatin decreases adhesion formation of flexor tendon.

Background: Prevention of adhesion formation following flexor tendon repair is essential for restoration of normal finger function. Although many medications have been studied in the experimental setting to prevent adhesions, clinical application is limited due to the complexity of application and delivery in clinical translation. Methods: In this study, optimal dosages of gelatin and pentamidine were validated by gelatin concentration test. Following cell viability, cell migration, live and dead cell, and cell adhesion assay of the Turkey tenocytes, a model of Turkey tendon repair was established to evaluate the effectiveness of the Pentamidine-Gelatin sheet. Results: Pentamidine carried with gelatin, a Food and drug administration (FDA) approved material for drug delivery, showed good dynamic release, biocompatibility, and degradation. The optimal dose of pentamidine (25ug) was determined in the in vivo study using tenocyte viability, migration, and cell adhesion assays. Further biochemical analyses demonstrated that this positive effect may be due to pentamidine downregulating the Wnt signaling pathway without affecting collagen expression. Conclusions: We tested a FDA-approved antibiotic, pentamidine, for reducing adhesion formation after flexor tendon repair in both in vitro and in vivo using a novel turkey animal model. Compared with the non-pentamidine treatment group, pentamidine treated turkeys had significantly reduced adhesions and improved digit function after six weeks of tendon healing. The translational potential of this article: This study for the first time showed that a common clinical drug, pentamidine, has a potential for clinical application to reduce tendon adhesions and improve tendon gliding function without interfering with tendon healing.

A Ready-to-Use Purified Exosome Product for Volumetric Muscle Loss and Functional Recovery.

Large skeletal muscle defects owing to trauma or following tumor extirpation can result in substantial functional impairment. Purified exosomes are now available clinically and have been used for wound healing. The objective of this study was to evaluate the regenerative capacity of commercially available exosomes on an animal model of volumetric muscle loss (VML) and its potential translation to human muscle injury. An established VML rat model was used. In the in vitro experiment, rat myoblasts were isolated and cocultured with 5% purified exosome product (PEP) to validate uptake. Myoblast proliferation and migration was evaluated with increasing concentrations of PEP (2.5%, 5%, and 10%) in comparison with control media (F10) and myoblast growth medium (MGM). In the in vivo experiment, a lateral gastrocnemius-VML defect was made in the rat hindlimb. Animals were randomized into four experimental groups; defects were treated with surgery alone, fibrin sealant, fibrin sealant and PEP, or platelet-rich plasma (PRP). The groups were further randomized into four recovery time points (14, 28, 45, or 90 days). The isometric tetanic force (ITF), which was measured as a percentage of force compared with normal limb, was used for functional evaluation. Florescence microscopy confirmed that 5% PEP demonstrated cellular uptake ∼8-12 h. Compared with the control, myoblasts showed faster proliferation with PEP irrespective of concentration. PEP concentrations of 2.5% and 5% promoted myoblast migration faster compared with the control (<0.05). At 90 days postop, both the PEP and fibrin sealant and PRP groups showed greater ITF compared with control and fibrin sealant alone (<0.05). At 45 days postop, PEP with fibrin sealant had greater cellularity compared with control (<0.05). At 90 days postop, both PEP with fibrin sealant and the PRP-treated groups had greater cellularity compared with fibrin sealant and control (<0.05). PEP promoted myoblast proliferation and migration. When delivered to a wound with a fibrin sealant, PEP allowed for muscle regeneration producing greater functional recovery and more cellularity in vivo compared with untreated animals. PEP may promote muscle regeneration in cases of VML; further research is warranted to evaluate PEP for the treatment of clinical muscle defects.

Enhancing Functional Recovery after Segmental Nerve Defect Using Nerve Allograft Treated with Plasma-Derived Exosome.

BACKGROUND: Nerve injuries can result in detrimental functional outcomes. Currently, autologous nerve graft offers the best outcome for segmental peripheral nerve injury. Allografts are alternatives, but do not have comparable results. This study evaluated whether plasma-derived exosome can improve nerve regeneration and functional recovery when combined with decellularized nerve allografts. METHODS: The effect of exosomes on Schwann cell proliferation and migration were evaluated. A rat model of sciatic nerve repair was used to evaluate the effect on nerve regeneration and functional recovery. A fibrin sealant was used as the scaffold for exosome. Eighty-four Lewis rats were divided into autograft, allograft, and allograft with exosome groups. Gene expression of nerve regeneration factors was analyzed on postoperative day 7. At 12 and 16 weeks, rats were subjected to maximum isometric tetanic force and compound muscle action potential. Nerve specimens were then analyzed by means of histology and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Exosomes were readily taken up by Schwann cells that resulted in improved Schwann cell viability and migration. The treated allograft group had functional recovery (compound muscle action potential, isometric tetanic force) comparable to that of the autograft group. Similar results were observed in gene expression analysis of nerve regenerating factors. Histologic analysis showed no statistically significant differences between treated allograft and autograft groups in terms of axonal density, fascicular area, and myelin sheath thickness. CONCLUSIONS: Plasma-derived exosome treatment of decellularized nerve allograft may provide comparable clinical outcomes to that of an autograft. This can be a promising strategy in the future as an alternative for segmental peripheral nerve repair. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: Off-the-shelf exosomes may improve recovery in nerve allografts.

International Residents' Perspectives on Education and Challenges in Microsurgery Training.

Objective Microsurgery remains an integral component of the surgical skillset and is essential for a diversity of reconstructive procedures. The apprenticeship also requires overcoming a steep learning curve, among many challenges. The method of microsurgical training differs depending on the countries' regions and resources of their health care system. Methods The Journal of Hand and Microsurgery leadership held an international webinar on June 19, 2021, consisting of a panel of residents from 10 countries and moderated by eminent panelists. This inaugural event aimed to share different experiences of microsurgery training on a global scale, identifying challenges to accessing and delivering training. Results Residents shared various structures and modes of microsurgical education worldwide. Areas of discussion also included microsurgical laboratory training, simulation training, knowledge sharing, burnout among trainees, and challenges for female residents in microsurgical training. Conclusion Microsurgical proficiency is attained through deliberate and continued practice, and there is a strong emphasis globally on training and guidance. However, much remains to be done to improve microsurgical training and start acting on the various challenges raised by residents. Level of Evidence Level V.

Vascularized Bone Flap Options for Complex Thoracic Spinal Reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: Osseous reconstruction following total spondylectomy/vertebrectomy in the thoracic spine is indicated to restore spinal stability. To assist with bony reconstruction, vascularized bone flaps including free vascularized fibula flaps and pedicled rib flaps can be used. However, there are limited data comparing various techniques. The authors aimed to evaluate the outcomes of free vascularized fibula flaps and pedicled rib flaps used for thoracic spinal reconstruction. METHODS: The authors reviewed 44 vascularized bone flaps [10 anterior pedicled rib flaps, 25 posterior pedicled rib flaps, and nine vascularized fibula flaps] for corpectomy defects spanning T1 to L1 between January of 1999 and June of 2018. Mean age and follow-up were 46 ±17 years and 74 ± 52 months, respectively. RESULTS: The union rate was 93 percent, with a similar mean time to union among the three groups: free vascularized fibula flaps, 9 ± 4 months; anterior pedicled rib flaps, 9 ± 6 months; and posterior pedicled rib flaps, 9 ± 5 months (p = 0.95). Surgical-site complications were found in 27 vascularized bone flaps (61 percent), and reoperations and revisions were performed in 14 (32 percent) and 10 (23 percent) vascularized bone flaps, respectively. No differences were identified among anterior pedicled rib flaps, posterior pedicled rib flaps, and vascularized fibula flaps with regard to complication, reoperation, and revision rates. CONCLUSIONS: Free vascularized fibula flaps and pedicled rib flaps provide durable reconstruction for thoracic spinal defects. Union, time to union, revision, and reoperation rates were similar among anterior and posterior pedicled rib flaps and vascularized fibula flaps. Given the variability in indication and defect types among the flap cohorts, the authors' results should be interpreted carefully as an insight into the outcomes of different vascularized bone flaps for the unique cases of thoracic spinal reconstruction rather than to compare the different flaps used. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, III.