Intergroup discrimination in the minimal group paradigm: categorization, reciprocation, or fear?

H. Tajfel's (1970) minimal group paradigm (MGP) research suggests that social categorization is a sufficient antecedent of ingroup-favoring discrimination. Two experiments examined whether discrimination in the MGP arises from categorization or processes of outcome dependence, that is, ingroup reciprocity and outgroup fear. Experiment 1 unconfounded categorization from outcome dependence. Categorized men discriminated only when dependent on others. Categorized women discriminated regardless of the structure of dependence. Experiment 2 examined dependence on the ingroup versus the outgroup as the locus of male-initiated discrimination. Consistently with an ingroup reciprocity effect, men discriminated when dependent on ingroup, but not outgroup, members. Sex differences are discussed in regard to women's heightened ingroup dependence produced by biological or environmental constraints.

Memory for and experience of differential competitive behavior of individuals and groups.

Four experiments investigated whether differential experiences with groups and individuals led to previously obtained results of greater competitive expectations in intergroup than interindividual relations. In Experiment 1, participants rated their recalled instances of intergroup relations as more competitive than their interindividual relations. In Experiment 2, a relatively greater proportion of competitive to cooperative intergroup relations were recalled compared with interindividual relations. In Experiment 3, participants recorded relevant interactions for 7 days, and rated their intergroup relations as more competitive than their interindividual relations. In Experiment 4, participants recorded a relatively greater number of cooperative than competitive relations with individuals than with groups. These results can be interpreted as a demonstration in a nonlaboratory context that intergroup relations are more competitive than interindividual relations.

Interindividual-intergroup discontinuity reduction through the anticipation of future interaction.

Consistent with the role of a long-term perspective in reducing the tendency of intergroup relations to be more competitive than interindividual relations in the context of noncorrespondent outcomes, an experiment demonstrated that anticipated future interaction reduced intergroup but not interindividual competitiveness. Further results indicated that the effect was present only for groups composed of members high in abstractness (Openness-Intellect on the Big 5 Inventory and Intuition on the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory) who trusted their opponents.

Long-term outcome maximization and the reduction of interindividual-intergroup discontinuity.

Two experiments demonstrated that different procedures can be used to reduce the tendency for intergroup relations to be more competitive than interindividual relations. Experiment 1 revealed that this tendency was reduced when individual or group participants interacted with individual or group confederates who followed a tit-for-tat strategy as opposed to a Pavlov strategy or a standard control condition that did not involve confederates. Experiment 2 revealed that the tendency for groups to be more competitive than individuals was less pronounced with successive responding than with simultaneous responding. Further results indicated that the higher the total session score on the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale, the less the competition between groups. The results from both experiments were interpreted as indicating that intergroup competitiveness can be reduced by inducing a concern with long-term outcomes.

When groups are more competitive than individuals: the domain of the discontinuity effect.

The related goals of the research were to delineate the domain of discontinuity, 1st by demonstrating its occurrence in a nonmatrix situation and, 2nd, by establishing the antecedent outcome conditions necessary for producing a discontinuity effect. The 1st goal was met by designing a mixed motive situation involving the production of origami products. Under these conditions, the magnitude of the discontinuity effect did not significantly differ from that in a matrix-only condition. The 2nd goal was met by a separate experiment that used H. H. Kelley and J. W. Thibaut's (1978) analysis of degree of noncorrespondence of outcomes. This experiment demonstrated that as noncorrespondence increased, so did the rate of competitive responding by groups but not by individuals. This pattern was qualified by an interaction with gender such that competitiveness was more markedly affected by noncorrespondence for groups of women than for groups of men.

Free-response self-discrepancies across, among, and within FFM personality dimensions.

An approach for personality-based self-discrepancy (PBSD) measurement is proposed, whereby self-beliefs and incongruities among their contents are assessed with respect to five-factor model (FFM) semantic dimensions. Selves Questionnaire attributes from 191 college students were coded against L. R. Goldberg's (1990) FFM factor analysis to construct personality scores for actual, ideal, and ought self domains, as well as several PBSD indices. Multivariate analyses were conducted to test self-discrepancy and personality-structure hypotheses, and to demonstrate this strategy's operational flexibility. Profile analyses indicated that empirical self-discrepancies depend upon whether and how personality structure is incorporated. Methodological alterations influenced self-discrepancy findings negligibly. Initial evidence for PBSD construct validity and predictive specificity is presented, and the approach's implications, advantages, and extensions are discussed.