Development of a Novel Lead that Targets M. tuberculosis Polyketide Synthase 13.

Widespread resistance to first-line TB drugs is a major problem that will likely only be resolved through the development of new drugs with novel mechanisms of action. We have used structure-guided methods to develop a lead molecule that targets the thioesterase activity of polyketide synthase Pks13, an essential enzyme that forms mycolic acids, required for the cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Our lead, TAM16, is a benzofuran class inhibitor of Pks13 with highly potent in vitro bactericidal activity against drug-susceptible and drug-resistant clinical isolates of M. tuberculosis. In multiple mouse models of TB infection, TAM16 showed in vivo efficacy equal to the first-line TB drug isoniazid, both as a monotherapy and in combination therapy with rifampicin. TAM16 has excellent pharmacological and safety profiles, and the frequency of resistance for TAM16 is ∼100-fold lower than INH, suggesting that it can be developed as a new antitubercular aimed at the acute infection. PAPERCLIP.

Tryptophan biosynthesis protects mycobacteria from CD4 T-cell-mediated killing.

Bacteria that cause disease rely on their ability to counteract and overcome host defenses. Here, we present a genome-scale study of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) that uncovers the bacterial determinants of surviving host immunity, sets of genes we term "counteractomes." Through this analysis, we found that CD4 T cells attempt to contain Mtb growth by starving it of tryptophan--a mechanism that successfully limits infections by Chlamydia and Leishmania, natural tryptophan auxotrophs. Mtb, however, can synthesize tryptophan under stress conditions, and thus, starvation fails as an Mtb-killing mechanism. We then identify a small-molecule inhibitor of Mtb tryptophan synthesis, which converts Mtb into a tryptophan auxotroph and restores the efficacy of a failed host defense. Together, our findings demonstrate that the Mtb immune counteractomes serve as probes of host immunity, uncovering immune-mediated stresses that can be leveraged for therapeutic discovery.

A mutant fitness assay identifies bacterial interactions in a model ocean hot spot.

Bacteria that assemble in phycospheres surrounding living phytoplankton cells metabolize a substantial proportion of ocean primary productivity. Yet the type and extent of interactions occurring among species that colonize these micron-scale "hot spot" environments are challenging to study. We identified genes that mediate bacterial interactions in phycosphere communities by culturing a transposon mutant library of copiotrophic bacterium Ruegeria pomeroyi DSS-3 with the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana CCMP1335 as the sole source of organic matter in the presence or absence of other heterotrophic bacterial species. The function of genes having significant effects on R. pomeroyi fitness indicated explicit cell-cell interactions initiated in the multibacterial phycospheres. We found that R. pomeroyi simultaneously competed for shared substrates while increasing reliance on substrates that did not support the other species' growth. Fitness outcomes also indicated that the bacterium competed for nitrogen in the forms of ammonium and amino acids; obtained purines, pyrimidines, and cofactors via crossfeeding; both initiated and defended antagonistic interactions; and sensed an environment with altered oxygen and superoxide levels. The large genomes characteristic of copiotrophic marine bacteria are hypothesized to enable responses to dynamic ecological challenges occurring at the scale of microns. Here, we discover >200 nonessential genes implicated in the management of fitness costs and benefits of membership in a globally significant bacterial community.

Phase variation as a major mechanism of adaptation in Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex.

Phase variation induced by insertions and deletions (INDELs) in genomic homopolymeric tracts (HT) can silence and regulate genes in pathogenic bacteria, but this process is not characterized in MTBC (Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex) adaptation. We leverage 31,428 diverse clinical isolates to identify genomic regions including phase-variants under positive selection. Of 87,651 INDEL events that emerge repeatedly across the phylogeny, 12.4% are phase-variants within HTs (0.02% of the genome by length). We estimated the in-vitro frameshift rate in a neutral HT at 100× the neutral substitution rate at [Formula: see text] frameshifts/HT/year. Using neutral evolution simulations, we identified 4,098 substitutions and 45 phase-variants to be putatively adaptive to MTBC (P < 0.002). We experimentally confirm that a putatively adaptive phase-variant alters the expression of espA, a critical mediator of ESX-1-dependent virulence. Our evidence supports the hypothesis that phase variation in the ESX-1 system of MTBC can act as a toggle between antigenicity and survival in the host.

A dose-response model for statistical analysis of chemical genetic interactions in CRISPRi screens.

An important application of CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) technology is for identifying chemical-genetic interactions (CGIs). Discovery of genes that interact with exposure to antibiotics can yield insights to drug targets and mechanisms of action or resistance. The objective is to identify CRISPRi mutants whose relative abundance is suppressed (or enriched) in the presence of a drug when the target protein is depleted, reflecting synergistic behavior. Different sgRNAs for a given target can induce a wide range of protein depletion and differential effects on growth rate. The effect of sgRNA strength can be partially predicted based on sequence features. However, the actual growth phenotype depends on the sensitivity of cells to depletion of the target protein. For essential genes, sgRNA efficiency can be empirically measured by quantifying effects on growth rate. We observe that the most efficient sgRNAs are not always optimal for detecting synergies with drugs. sgRNA efficiency interacts in a non-linear way with drug sensitivity, producing an effect where the concentration-dependence is maximized for sgRNAs of intermediate strength (and less so for sgRNAs that induce too much or too little target depletion). To capture this interaction, we propose a novel statistical method called CRISPRi-DR (for Dose-Response model) that incorporates both sgRNA efficiencies and drug concentrations in a modified dose-response equation. We use CRISPRi-DR to re-analyze data from a recent CGI experiment in Mycobacterium tuberculosis to identify genes that interact with antibiotics. This approach can be generalized to non-CGI datasets, which we show via an CRISPRi dataset for E. coli growth on different carbon sources. The performance is competitive with the best of several related analytical methods. However, for noisier datasets, some of these methods generate far more significant interactions, likely including many false positives, whereas CRISPRi-DR maintains higher precision, which we observed in both empirical and simulated data.

Large-scale chemical-genetics yields new M. tuberculosis inhibitor classes.

New antibiotics are needed to combat rising levels of resistance, with new Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) drugs having the highest priority. However, conventional whole-cell and biochemical antibiotic screens have failed. Here we develop a strategy termed PROSPECT (primary screening of strains to prioritize expanded chemistry and targets), in which we screen compounds against pools of strains depleted of essential bacterial targets. We engineered strains that target 474 essential Mtb genes and screened pools of 100-150 strains against activity-enriched and unbiased compound libraries, probing more than 8.5 million chemical-genetic interactions. Primary screens identified over tenfold more hits than screening wild-type Mtb alone, with chemical-genetic interactions providing immediate, direct target insights. We identified over 40 compounds that target DNA gyrase, the cell wall, tryptophan, folate biosynthesis and RNA polymerase, as well as inhibitors that target EfpA. Chemical optimization yielded EfpA inhibitors with potent wild-type activity, thus demonstrating the ability of PROSPECT to yield inhibitors against targets that would have eluded conventional drug discovery.

Chemical-genetic interaction mapping links carbon metabolism and cell wall structure to tuberculosis drug efficacy.

Current chemotherapy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), an important human pathogen, requires a multidrug regimen lasting several months. While efforts have been made to optimize therapy by exploiting drug­drug synergies, testing new drug combinations in relevant host environments remains arduous. In particular, host environments profoundly affect the bacterial metabolic state and drug efficacy, limiting the accuracy of predictions based on in vitro assays alone. In this study, we utilized conditional Mtb knockdown mutants of essential genes as an experimentally tractable surrogate for drug treatment and probe the relationship between Mtb carbon metabolism and chemical­genetic interactions (CGIs). We examined the antitubercular drugs isoniazid, rifampicin, and moxifloxacin and found that CGIs are differentially responsive to the metabolic state, defining both environment-independent and -dependent interactions. Specifically, growth on the in vivo­relevant carbon source, cholesterol, reduced rifampicin efficacy by altering mycobacterial cell surface lipid composition. We report that a variety of perturbations in cell wall synthesis pathways restore rifampicin efficacy during growth on cholesterol, and that both environment-independent and cholesterol-dependent in vitro CGIs could be leveraged to enhance bacterial clearance in the mouse infection model. Our findings present an atlas of chemical­genetic­environmental interactions that can be used to optimize drug­drug interactions, as well as provide a framework for understanding in vitro correlates of in vivo efficacy.

Mycobacterial RNase E cleaves with a distinct sequence preference and controls the degradation rates of most Mycolicibacterium smegmatis mRNAs.

The mechanisms and regulation of RNA degradation in mycobacteria have been subject to increased interest following the identification of interplay between RNA metabolism and drug resistance. Mycobacteria encode multiple ribonucleases predicted to participate in mRNA degradation and/or processing of stable RNAs. RNase E is hypothesized to play a major role in mRNA degradation because of its essentiality in mycobacteria and its role in mRNA degradation in gram-negative bacteria. Here, we defined the impact of RNase E on mRNA degradation rates transcriptome-wide in the nonpathogenic model Mycolicibacterium smegmatis. RNase E played a rate-limiting role in degradation of the transcripts encoded by at least 89% of protein-coding genes, with leadered transcripts often being more affected by RNase E repression than leaderless transcripts. There was an apparent global slowing of transcription in response to knockdown of RNase E, suggesting that M. smegmatis regulates transcription in responses to changes in mRNA degradation. This compensation was incomplete, as the abundance of most transcripts increased upon RNase E knockdown. We assessed the sequence preferences for cleavage by RNase E transcriptome-wide in M. smegmatis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis and found a consistent bias for cleavage in C-rich regions. Purified RNase E had a clear preference for cleavage immediately upstream of cytidines, distinct from the sequence preferences of RNase E in gram-negative bacteria. We furthermore report a high-resolution map of mRNA cleavage sites in M. tuberculosis, which occur primarily within the RNase E-preferred sequence context, confirming that RNase E has a broad impact on the M. tuberculosis transcriptome.

The Myxobacterial Antibiotic Myxovalargin: Biosynthesis, Structural Revision, Total Synthesis, and Molecular Characterization of Ribosomal Inhibition.

Resistance of bacterial pathogens against antibiotics is declared by WHO as a major global health threat. As novel antibacterial agents are urgently needed, we re-assessed the broad-spectrum myxobacterial antibiotic myxovalargin and found it to be extremely potent against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. To ensure compound supply for further development, we studied myxovalargin biosynthesis in detail enabling production via fermentation of a native producer. Feeding experiments as well as functional genomics analysis suggested a structural revision, which was eventually corroborated by the development of a concise total synthesis. The ribosome was identified as the molecular target based on resistant mutant sequencing, and a cryo-EM structure revealed that myxovalargin binds within and completely occludes the exit tunnel, consistent with a mode of action to arrest translation during a late stage of translation initiation. These studies open avenues for structure-based scaffold improvement toward development as an antibacterial agent.

Deletion of Rv2571c confers resistance to arylamide compounds in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is an urgent global health problem requiring new drugs, new drug targets and an increased understanding of antibiotic resistance. We have determined the mode of resistance to a series of arylamide compounds in M. tuberculosis We isolated M. tuberculosis resistant mutants to two arylamide compounds which are inhibitory to growth under host-relevant conditions (butyrate as a sole carbon source). Thirteen mutants were characterized, and all had mutations in Rv2571c; mutations included a premature stop codon and frameshifts as well as non-synonymous polymorphisms. We isolated a further ten strains with mutations in Rv2571c with resistance. Complementation with a wild-type copy of Rv2571c restored arylamide sensitivity. Over-expression of Rv2571c was toxic in both wild-type and mutant backgrounds. We constructed M. tuberculosis strains with an unmarked deletion of the entire Rv2571c gene by homologous recombination and confirmed that these were resistant to the arylamide series. Rv2571c is a member of the aromatic amino acid transport family and has a fusaric acid resistance domain which is associated with compound transport. Since loss or inactivation of Rv2571c leads to resistance, we propose that Rv2571c is involved in the import of arylamide compounds.

Developing synergistic drug combinations to restore antibiotic sensitivity in drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a leading global cause of mortality owing to an infectious agent, accounting for almost one-third of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) deaths annually. We aimed to identify synergistic anti-TB drug combinations with the capacity to restore therapeutic efficacy against drug-resistant mutants of the causative agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis We investigated combinations containing the known translational inhibitors, spectinomycin (SPT) and fusidic acid (FA), or the phenothiazine, chlorpromazine (CPZ), which disrupts mycobacterial energy metabolism. Potentiation of whole-cell drug efficacy was observed in SPT-CPZ combinations. This effect was lost against an M. tuberculosis mutant lacking the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) efflux pump, Rv1258c. Notably, the SPT-CPZ combination partially restored SPT efficacy against an SPT-resistant mutant carrying a g1379t point mutation in rrs, encoding the mycobacterial 16S ribosomal RNA. Combinations of SPT with FA, which targets the mycobacterial elongation factor G, exhibited potentiating activity against wild-type M. tuberculosis Moreover, this combination produced a modest potentiating effect against both FA-monoresistant and SPT-monoresistant mutants. Finally, combining SPT with the frontline anti-TB agents, rifampicin (RIF) and isoniazid, resulted in enhanced activity in vitro and ex vivo against both drug-susceptible M. tuberculosis and a RIF-monoresistant rpoB S531L mutant.These results support the utility of novel potentiating drug combinations in restoring antibiotic susceptibility of M. tuberculosis strains carrying genetic resistance to any one of the partner compounds.

Comprehensive analysis of iron utilization by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Iron is essential for nearly all bacterial pathogens, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), but is severely limited in the human host. To meet its iron needs, Mtb secretes siderophores, small molecules with high affinity for iron, and takes up iron-loaded mycobactins (MBT) and carboxymycobactins (cMBT), from the environment. Mtb is also capable of utilizing heme and hemoglobin which contain more than 70% of the iron in the human body. However, many components of these iron acquisition pathways are still unknown. In this study, a high-density transposon mutagenesis coupled with deep sequencing (TnSeq) showed that Mtb exhibits nearly opposite requirements for 165 genes in the presence of heme and hemoglobin versus MBT and cMBT as iron sources. The ESX-3 secretion system was assessed as essential for siderophore-mediated iron uptake and, surprisingly, also for heme utilization by Mtb. Predictions derived from the TnSeq analysis were validated by growth experiments with isogenic Mtb mutants. These results showed that (i) the efflux pump MmpL5 plays a dominant role in siderophore secretion, (ii) the Rv2047c protein is essential for growth of Mtb in the presence of mycobactin, and (iii) the transcriptional repressor Zur is required for heme utilization by Mtb. The novel genetic determinants of iron utilization revealed in this study will stimulate further experiments in this important area of Mtb physiology.

Correction: TnSeq of Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates reveals strain-specific antibiotic liabilities.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006939.].

The conserved translation factor LepA is required for optimal synthesis of a porin family in Mycobacterium smegmatis.

The recalcitrance of mycobacteria to antibiotic therapy is in part due to its ability to build proteins into a multi-layer cell wall. Proper synthesis of both cell wall constituents and associated proteins is crucial to maintaining cell integrity, and intimately tied to antibiotic susceptibility. How mycobacteria properly synthesize the membrane-associated proteome, however, remains poorly understood. Recently, we found that loss of lepA in Mycobacterium smegmatis (Msm) altered tolerance to rifampin, a drug that targets a non-ribosomal cellular process. LepA is a ribosome-associated GTPase found in bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts, yet its physiological contribution to cellular processes is not clear. To uncover the determinants of LepA-mediated drug tolerance, we characterized the whole-cell proteomes and transcriptomes of a lepA deletion mutant relative to strains with lepA We find that LepA is important for the steady-state abundance of a number of membrane-associated proteins, including an outer membrane porin, MspA, which is integral to nutrient uptake and drug susceptibility. Loss of LepA leads to a decreased amount of porin in the membrane which leads to the drug tolerance phenotype of the lepA mutant. In mycobacteria, the translation factor LepA modulates mycobacterial membrane homeostasis, which in turn affects antibiotic tolerance.ImportanceThe mycobacterial cell wall is a promising target for new antibiotics due to the abundance of important membrane-associated proteins. Defining mechanisms of synthesis of the membrane proteome will be critical to uncovering and validating drug targets. We found that LepA, a universally conserved translation factor, controls the synthesis of a number of major membrane proteins in M. smegmatis LepA primarily controls synthesis of the major porin MspA. Loss of LepA results in decreased permeability through the loss of this porin, including permeability to antibiotics like rifampin and vancomycin. In mycobacteria, regulation from the ribosome is critical for the maintenance of membrane homeostasis and, importantly, antibiotic susceptibility.

Mutations in fbiD (Rv2983) as a Novel Determinant of Resistance to Pretomanid and Delamanid in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

The nitroimidazole prodrugs delamanid and pretomanid comprise one of only two new antimicrobial classes approved to treat tuberculosis (TB) in 50 years. Prior in vitro studies suggest a relatively low barrier to nitroimidazole resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, but clinical evidence is limited to date. We selected pretomanid-resistant M. tuberculosis mutants in two mouse models of TB using a range of pretomanid doses. The frequency of spontaneous resistance was approximately 10-5 CFU. Whole-genome sequencing of 161 resistant isolates from 47 mice revealed 99 unique mutations, of which 91% occurred in 1 of 5 genes previously associated with nitroimidazole activation and resistance, namely, fbiC (56%), fbiA (15%), ddn (12%), fgd (4%), and fbiB (4%). Nearly all mutations were unique to a single mouse and not previously identified. The remaining 9% of resistant mutants harbored mutations in Rv2983 (fbiD), a gene not previously associated with nitroimidazole resistance but recently shown to be a guanylyltransferase necessary for cofactor F420 synthesis. Most mutants exhibited high-level resistance to pretomanid and delamanid, although Rv2983 and fbiB mutants exhibited high-level pretomanid resistance but relatively small changes in delamanid susceptibility. Complementing an Rv2983 mutant with wild-type Rv2983 restored susceptibility to pretomanid and delamanid. By quantifying intracellular F420 and its precursor Fo in overexpressing and loss-of-function mutants, we provide further evidence that Rv2983 is necessary for F420 biosynthesis. Finally, Rv2983 mutants and other F420H2-deficient mutants displayed hypersusceptibility to some antibiotics and to concentrations of malachite green found in solid media used to isolate and propagate mycobacteria from clinical samples.

TnSeq of Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates reveals strain-specific antibiotic liabilities.

Once considered a phenotypically monomorphic bacterium, there is a growing body of work demonstrating heterogeneity among Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) strains in clinically relevant characteristics, including virulence and response to antibiotics. However, the genetic and molecular basis for most phenotypic differences among Mtb strains remains unknown. To investigate the basis of strain variation in Mtb, we performed genome-wide transposon mutagenesis coupled with next-generation sequencing (TnSeq) for a panel of Mtb clinical isolates and the reference strain H37Rv to compare genetic requirements for in vitro growth across these strains. We developed an analytic approach to identify quantitative differences in genetic requirements between these genetically diverse strains, which vary in genomic structure and gene content. Using this methodology, we found differences between strains in their requirements for genes involved in fundamental cellular processes, including redox homeostasis and central carbon metabolism. Among the genes with differential requirements were katG, which encodes the activator of the first-line antitubercular agent isoniazid, and glcB, which encodes malate synthase, the target of a novel small-molecule inhibitor. Differences among strains in their requirement for katG and glcB predicted differences in their response to these antimicrobial agents. Importantly, these strain-specific differences in antibiotic response could not be predicted by genetic variants identified through whole genome sequencing or by gene expression analysis. Our results provide novel insight into the basis of variation among Mtb strains and demonstrate that TnSeq is a scalable method to predict clinically important phenotypic differences among Mtb strains.

Natural brominated phenoxyphenols kill persistent and biofilm-incorporated cells of MRSA and other pathogenic bacteria.

Due to a high unresponsiveness to chemotherapy, biofilm formation is an important medical problem that frequently occurs during infection with many bacterial pathogens. In this study, the marine sponge-derived natural compounds 4,6-dibromo-2-(2',4'-dibromophenoxy)phenol and 3,4,6-tribromo-2-(2',4'-dibromophenoxy)phenol were found to exhibit broad antibacterial activity against medically relevant gram-positive and gram-negative pathogens. The compounds were not only bactericidal against both replicating and stationary phase-persistent planktonic cells of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa; they also killed biofilm-incorporated cells of both species while not affecting biofilm structural integrity. Moreover, these compounds were active against carbapenemase-producing Enterobacter sp. This simultaneous activity of compounds against different growth forms of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria is rare. Genome sequencing of spontaneous resistant mutants and proteome analysis suggest that resistance is mediated by downregulation of the bacterial EIIBC phosphotransferase components scrA and mtlA in MRSA likely leading to a lower uptake of the molecules. Due to their only moderate cytotoxicity against human cell lines, phenoxyphenols provide an interesting new scaffold for development of antimicrobial agents with activity against planktonic cells, persisters and biofilm-incoporated cells of ESKAPE pathogens. KEY POINTS: • Brominated phenoxyphenols kill actively replicating and biofilm-incorporated bacteria. • Phosphotransferase systems mediate uptake of brominated phenoxyphenols. • Downregulation of phosphotransferase systems mediate resistance.

Glyoxylate detoxification is an essential function of malate synthase required for carbon assimilation in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

The glyoxylate shunt is a metabolic pathway of bacteria, fungi, and plants used to assimilate even-chain fatty acids (FAs) and has been implicated in persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Recent work, however, showed that the first enzyme of the glyoxylate shunt, isocitrate lyase (ICL), may mediate survival of Mtb during the acute and chronic phases of infection in mice through physiologic functions apart from fatty acid metabolism. Here, we report that malate synthase (MS), the second enzyme of the glyoxylate shunt, is essential for in vitro growth and survival of Mtb on even-chain fatty acids, in part, for a previously unrecognized activity: mitigating the toxicity of glyoxylate excess arising from metabolism of even-chain fatty acids. Metabolomic profiling revealed that MS-deficient Mtb cultured on fatty acids accumulated high levels of the ICL aldehyde endproduct, glyoxylate, and increased levels of acetyl phosphate, acetoacetyl coenzyme A (acetoacetyl-CoA), butyryl CoA, acetoacetate, and ß-hydroxybutyrate. These changes were indicative of a glyoxylate-induced state of oxaloacetate deficiency, acetate overload, and ketoacidosis. Reduction of intrabacterial glyoxylate levels using a chemical inhibitor of ICL restored growth of MS-deficient Mtb, despite inhibiting entry of carbon into the glyoxylate shunt. In vivo depletion of MS resulted in sterilization of Mtb in both the acute and chronic phases of mouse infection. This work thus identifies glyoxylate detoxification as an essential physiologic function of Mtb malate synthase and advances its validation as a target for drug development.

Statistical analysis of variability in TnSeq data across conditions using zero-inflated negative binomial regression.

BACKGROUND: Deep sequencing of transposon mutant libraries (or TnSeq) is a powerful method for probing essentiality of genomic loci under different environmental conditions. Various analytical methods have been described for identifying conditionally essential genes whose tolerance for insertions varies between two conditions. However, for large-scale experiments involving many conditions, a method is needed for identifying genes that exhibit significant variability in insertions across multiple conditions. RESULTS: In this paper, we introduce a novel statistical method for identifying genes with significant variability of insertion counts across multiple conditions based on Zero-Inflated Negative Binomial (ZINB) regression. Using likelihood ratio tests, we show that the ZINB distribution fits TnSeq data better than either ANOVA or a Negative Binomial (in a generalized linear model). We use ZINB regression to identify genes required for infection of M. tuberculosis H37Rv in C57BL/6 mice. We also use ZINB to perform a analysis of genes conditionally essential in H37Rv cultures exposed to multiple antibiotics. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that, not only does ZINB generally identify most of the genes found by pairwise resampling (and vastly out-performs ANOVA), but it also identifies additional genes where variability is detectable only when the magnitudes of insertion counts are treated separately from local differences in saturation, as in the ZINB model.

3-O-Methyl-Alkylgallates Inhibit Fatty Acid Desaturation in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

In the quest for new antibacterial lead structures, activity screening against Mycobacterium tuberculosis identified antitubercular effects of gallic acid derivatives isolated from the Nigerian mistletoe Loranthus micranthus Structure-activity relationship studies indicated that 3-O-methyl-alkylgallates comprising aliphatic ester chains with four to eight carbon atoms showed the strongest growth inhibition in vitro against M. tuberculosis, with a MIC of 6.25 µM. Furthermore, the most active compounds (3-O-methyl-butyl-, 3-O-methyl-hexylgallate, and 3-O-methyl-octylgallate) were devoid of cytotoxicity against various human cell lines. Furthermore, 3-O-methyl-butylgallate showed favorable absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) criteria, with a Papp of 6.2 × 10-6 cm/s, and it did not inhibit P-glycoprotein (P-gp), CYP1A2, CYP2B6 or CYP3A4. Whole-genome sequencing of spontaneous resistant mutants indicated that the compounds target the stearoyl-coenzyme A (stearoyl-CoA) delta-9 desaturase DesA3 and thereby inhibit oleic acid synthesis. Supplementation assays demonstrated that oleic acid addition to the culture medium antagonizes the inhibitory properties of gallic acid derivatives and that sodium salts of saturated palmitic and stearic acid did not show compensatory effects. The moderate bactericidal effect of 3-O-methyl-butylgallate in monotreatment was synergistically enhanced in combination treatment with isoniazid, leading to sterilization in liquid culture.