Effects of excessive violent video game playing on verbal memory: an event-related brain potentials study.

The goal of the study was to investigate temporal dynamics of excessive violent game playing. We compared behavioral data and event-related potentials (ERPs) of excessive video game players (EVGPs, n = 21) and non-players (NPs, n = 21) using a classical learning, cued recall and recognition paradigm, featuring violent and non-violent words. During the recognition phase, EVGPs performed better for violent words, but worse for non-violent words compared to NPs. Also, EVGPs showed slower reaction times than NPs when responding to new violent words. We found significant group differences in parietal P300 and FN400 amplitudes. The EVGP group showed larger P300 amplitudes for violent words, and more negative FN400 amplitudes for new violent words compared to NPs. The results imply that EVGPs differ from NPs in their cognitive and ERP responses to violent and non-violent verbal stimuli. The cognitive processes of EVGPs are consistent with a model of attention and memory bias rather than with desensitization to violence.

Comparing electrophysiological correlates of judgment of learning and feeling of knowing during face-name recognition.

We investigated the event-related potential (ERP) correlates of two metacognitive judgments, namely judgment of learning (JOL) and feeling of knowing (FOK) induced by a face-name recognition (FNR) task in 60 participants. The FNR produced N170 and P100 components at posterior, and an N100 component at anterior electrodes. Posterior P200, anterior N200 components were recorded during JOL and FOK judgments. Our data showed that ERP correlates of JOL and FOK emerge as rapidly as 200 ms following stimulus presentation, and these two metacognitive judgments are based on both perceptual fluency and conflict processes. However, these ERP components affected by the degree of JOL and FOK judgments. Thus, we concluded that even though JOL and FOK judgments produced similar ERP wave forms temporal dynamics of these two judgments are different. Also, our results support the hypothesis that metacognitive judgments are linked to distributed neural substrates rather than strictly to frontal lobe function.

Effects of personality traits and mood induction on metamemory judgments and metacognitive beliefs.

Although the effects of mood and personality traits on memory performance have previously been studied, their relationship to the metamemory and metacognitive processes is still unknown. In this study, we investigated the effects of mood induction (positive and negative) and personality traits (extroverted and neurotics) on metacognitive beliefs, memory confidence, the judgment of learning (JOL) and feeling of knowing (FOK) judgments during face-name recognition tasks. One hundred twenty-seven participants who met the criteria based on their extraverted and neurotic personality scores on the Big Five Personality Inventory were randomly assigned to positive and negative mood induction conditions. We found that neurotics showed lower JOL judgments and accuracy than extroverts. The interaction effect between mood and personality significantly affected JOL and FOK accuracy, indicating that while extraverts were more accurate during positive induction, neurotics were more accurate during negative induction. In addition, neurotics were underconfident in their memory and reported more negative metacognitive beliefs than extroverts. We concluded that memory and metamemory processes are distinguishable in their relationships with mood states and personality traits. Our data also showed that JOL and FOK are distinct processes that support domain-specific metacognitive judgments.

What guides the judgment of learning: Memory or heuristics? An event-related potential study.

Memory monitoring ability is essential for the effectiveness of learning processes. Judgment of Learning (JOL), a metacognitive judgment, is commonly used to measure this ability. An ongoing debate questions whether JOL is an outcome of an inferential or recollective experience, as suggested by different hypotheses regarding the underlying cognitive mechanisms of this judgment. To address this question through a neuroscientific perspective, we aimed to investigate the temporal dynamic of JOL adopting event-related potential (ERP) methodology. Seventy-two young adults participated in an episodic memory task involving word-pairs as stimuli. Their JOLs were obtained through categorical choices in a delayed condition. Additionally, their memory performance was tested in the recognition phase. ERP components were compared for different JOL levels, as well as for the hit responses in the recognition test according to their JOL levels. The analyses showed that JOL processes are observable within an early time window after stimulus presentation, as evidenced by elicitation of the P100, N100, P200, N200, and P300 components across all JOL levels. However, only the amplitude of the N100 varied among these levels. A negative ERP component with 330-500 ms latency was also evident for all JOL levels in the central and parietal electrodes, which did not differ in amplitude. The analyses of the recognition phase ERPs showed that the hit responses did not exhibit a significant difference in the familiarity-related mid-frontal old/new effect (FN400) amplitude; however, those with high level of JOL elicited recollection-related parietal old-new effect with a smaller amplitude. These findings support both hypotheses suggesting that JOL is influenced by heuristics and the retrievability of information.

How is social dominance related to our short-term memory? An EEG/ERP investigation of encoding and retrieval during a working memory task.

Social hierarchies exist in all societies and impact cognitive functions, brain mechanisms, social interactions, and behaviors. High status individuals often exhibit enhanced working memory (WM) performance compared to lower status individuals. This study examined whether individual differences in social dominance, as a predictor of future status, relate to WM abilities. Five hundred and twenty-five students completed the Personality Research Form dominance subscale questionnaire. From this sample, students with the highest and lowest scores were invited to participate in the study. Sixty-four participants volunteered to take part and were subsequently categorized into high- and low-dominance groups based on their dominance subscale questionnaire (PRF_d) scores. They performed a Sternberg WM task with set sizes of 1, 4, or 7 letters while their EEG was recorded. Event-related potential (ERP) and power spectral analysis revealed significantly reduced P3b amplitude and higher event-related synchronization (ERS) of theta and beta during encoding and retrieval phases in the high-than low-dominance group. Despite these neural processing differences, behavioral performance was equivalent between groups, potentially reflecting comparable cognitive load demands of the task across dominance levels. Further, there were similar P3b patterns for each set-size within groups. These findings provide initial evidence that individual differences in social dominance trait correlate with WM functioning, as indexed by neural processing efficiency during WM performance.

Investigating Retrospective and Prospective Metamemory Judgments During Episodic Memory in Patients With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders.

It is clear evidence that individuals diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) lack confidence in their memory and have low metamemory performance (judgment and accuracy). However, it is still unclear whether low metamemory performance is specific to first, domain general or domain specific, and second, to stimulus domain. To address these issues, we compared individuals diagnosed with OCD and healthy controls (HCs) on recognition, retrospective (judgments of learning [JOL]) and prospective (feeling of knowing [FOK]) metamemory judgments and under three different episodic memory tasks, which consisted of symptom-free, familiar and unfamiliar stimuli (word, scene, and face photo). OCD patients showed lower recognition performance, JOL and FOK judgments, and accuracy in all tasks than HCs. Also, OCD patients were slower than HCs during all cognitive performances. In both groups, metamemory performances were lower in familiar items than unfamiliar items. However, recognition performances were not affected by stimulus type. Our results support the idea of general episodic memory and a metamemory deficit in OCD. Moreover, metamemory deficits in OCD are domain general.

Investigating False Memory and Illusory Pattern Perception Bias in Schizophrenia Patients with and without Delusions.

Background: Whether the false memory dysfunction in schizophrenia is at the early (encoding, perceptual) or later (retrieval) stages and how delusions affect it remains unclear. Method: In this study, we examined the perception and memory biases in schizophrenia patients with (Sch/D; n = 31) and without delusions (Sch/Nd; n = 32) and compared them with healthy controls (HCs; n = 35). We used the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) Paradigm and the Noise Task to measure the false memory and illusory pattern perception (IPP) biases, respectively. Results: We found that the patient groups performed lower in both the recall and recognition phases for the DRM and the Noise tasks and made more errors compared to the HC group. Additionally, the performance of the Sch/D group was remarkably lower than the Sch/Nd and HC groups. Conclusions: Our results indicated that the information-processing problem in schizophrenia exists in both the encoding and retrieval stages. Also found significant relationship between the presence of delusions and the increase in cognitive deficits. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10608-023-10393-6.

Comparing event-related potentials of retrospective and prospective metacognitive judgments during episodic and semantic memory.

It is unclear whether metacognitive judgments are made on the basis of domain-generality or domain-specificity. In the current study, we compared both behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) correlates of retrospective (retrospective confidence judgments: RCJs), and prospective (feeling of knowing: FOK) metacognitive judgments during episodic and semantic memory tasks in 82 participants. Behavioral results indicated that FOK judgments reflect a domain-specific process, while RCJ reflect a domain-general process. RCJ and FOK judgments produced similar ERP waveforms within the memory tasks, but with different temporal dynamics; thus supporting the hypothesis that retrospective and prospective metacognitive judgments are distinct processes. Our ERP results also suggest that metacognitive judgments are linked to distributed neural substrates, rather than purely frontal lobe functioning. Furthermore, the role of intra-subject and inter-subject differences in metacognitive judgments across and within the memory tasks are highlighted.

Investigating the role of attachment orientation during emotional face recognition: An event-related potential study.

We recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) while anxious and avoidant participants performed an emotional face recognition task featuring happy and angry faces. The avoidant attachment individuals were more accurate on angry trials, whereas anxious attachment individuals were more accurate on happy trials. FN400 amplitude was larger in the anxious attachment group than in the avoidant attachment group. Both groups produced larger N170 amplitudes in response to angry faces. However, happy faces evoked shorter N170 latencies in the anxious attachment group while angry faces evoked shorter N170 latencies in the avoidant group. Our results demonstrate that the processing of emotional stimuli differs between individuals with anxious and avoidant attachment styles. These differences start at early stages of stimulus processing and yield perceptual biases in the two attachment orientations. This appears to underlie differences in the later stage of recognition of emotional stimuli.

Neurobiological basis of feeling of knowing in episodic memory.

Feeling of knowing (FOK) is a metacognitive process which allows individuals to predict the likelihood that they will be able to remember, in the future, information which they currently cannot recall. Although FOK provides evidence for the mechanisms of metacognitive systems, the neurobiological basis of FOK is still unclear. We investigated the neural correlates of FOK induced by an episodic memory task in 77 younger adult participants. Data were gathered using event-related potentials (ERPs). ERP components during high, low, extremely high and extremely low FOK judgments were analyzed. Stimulus-locked ERP analyses indicated that FOK judgment was associated with greater positivity for P200 component at frontal, central, and parietal electrode zones and greater negativity for the N200 component at parietal electrode zones. Furthermore, results revealed that amplitude of the ERP components for FOK judgments were affected by the level of FOK judgment. Results suggest that ERP components of FOK judgment observed within a 200 ms time window support the perceptual fluency-based model.

Exploring the role of metacognition in obsessive--compulsive and anxiety symptoms.

This study tests three hypotheses, predicting first that metacognition is highly correlated with anxiety and obsessive-compulsive (O-C) symptoms, second that it mediates the relationship between O-C symptoms and anxiety, and third that the meta-cognitive predictors of anxiety are different from the meta-cognitive predictors of O-C symptoms. The sample of the present study was 850 students selected from various universities in Turkey. Significant correlations between metacognition, O-C symptoms and anxiety were observed. Also, mediation analysis confirmed that metacognition fully mediated the relationship between O-C symptoms and anxiety. Consistent with our hypothesis, trait anxiety and O-C symptoms had different meta-cognitive predictors. Although, we expected that meta-cognitive beliefs would vary based on the sub-type of O-C symptoms, meta-cognitive beliefs did not differ according to the O-C symptom subtypes. We discussed results with reference to the literature of meta-cognition, anxiety and O-C symptoms.

[Adaptation, validity, and reliability of the Metacognition Questionnaire-30 for the Turkish population, and its relationship to anxiety and obsessive-compulsive symptoms]. / Ustbilis Olçegi-30'un Türkçe uyarlamasi, geçerligi, güvenirligi, kaygi ve obsesif-kompülsif belirtilerle iliskisi.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the short form of the Metacognition Questionnaire (MCQ-30) in a population of Turkish university students. The metacognitions questionnaire (MCQ) measures individual differences in a selection of metacognitive beliefs, judgments, and monitoring tendencies considered important in the metacognitive model of psychological disorders. METHOD: The study included 850 university students from 15 Turkish universities. Mean age age of the participants was 21.22 years, 282 (33.17%) were female, and 568 (66.82%) were male. RESULTS: Construct validity was evaluated by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Exploratory factor analysis revealed that the Turkish version of MCQ-30 has 5 components, which is same factor structure as the original form. In addition, the fit indices of CFA suggested an acceptable fit to a 5-factor model consistent with the original MCQ-30. The Turkish MCQ-30 showed acceptable to good test-retest reliability, internal consistency, and convergent validity. Significant positive relationships between the subscales of MCQ-30 and measures of anxiety and obsessive-compulsive symptoms provided further support for the convergent validity of the Turkish version. Moreover, significant negative correlations were observed between age and the MCQ-30 subscales, and the effect of gender was significant on some of the subscales. CONCLUSION: The psychometric properties of the Turkish version of MCQ-30 showed that the instrument is a valuable additional tool for the assessment of metacognition in Turkey.

Beliefs about Memory as a Mediator of Relations between Metacognitive Beliefs and Actual Memory Performance.

The goal of the present study was to investigate relationships between personal beliefs about memory, metacognitive beliefs, and actual memory performance. One hundred thirty-seven participants' (aged 20 to 60 years) metacognitive beliefs were measured using the Metacognition Questionnaire (MCQ-30), memory beliefs were measured using the Personal Beliefs about Memory Instrument (PBMI), and an episodic memory task was used to measure actual memory performance, memory predictions, and postdictions. Younger adults had lower scores on the positive beliefs subfactor of the MCQ-30, higher scores on retrospective change and control subfactors of the PBMI, and outperformed middle-aged adults on recall and recall postdiction. Path analysis showed that individuals' beliefs about memory mediate the relationship between metacognitive beliefs and actual memory performance. Specifically, low lack of confidence (or less worry) in one's own memory and attentional capabilities was related to higher memory performance and positive personal beliefs regarding specific memory ability mediated relationship.

[Neuropsychological profile of childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder]. / Cocukluk Dönemi Baslangiçli Obsesif-Kompulsif Bozuklugun Nöropsikolojik Profili.

In this review paper, studies focusing on the neuropsychological characteristics of childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) were evaluated. The literature search covered the MedLine and PsycInfo databases through June 2006. The presented results are of those that focus on the processes of attention, memory, and executive functions related to the aspects of the measured instruments used. The aim of this review was to provide a general neuropsychological profile of childhood-onset OCD based on the reviewed studies. In general, results showed that there is no clear evidence that the neuropsychological aspects of childhood-onset OCD differ from those of adult-onset OCD. In parallel with this, the processes of attention and memory in OCD are observed to be selective and biased, and this bias is directed towards threat-relevant stimuli related to obsessions and compulsions. In addition, dysfunction in memory and visuospatial processes in OCD patients do not result from memory impairment per se, but rather from an impaired ability to apply efficiently elaborated strategies. In childhood-onset OCD, the various lines of evidence consistently include impairment of response suppression and motor inhibition abilities; there is less consistent evidence for reduced set shifting, fluency, conceptual thinking, and planning ability. Whereas clinical observation suggests that a central problem in OCD is at the meta-memory level and that people with OCD have less meta-cognitive ability, processing of meta-cognition in childhood-onset OCD has not been investigated adequately. Finally, the results of the reviewed studies were evaluated in terms of the effects of basic co-morbidity, such as depression, Tourette's disorder, tic disorder, and other confounding variables.

Digit span changes from puberty to old age under different levels of education.

The goal of this study is to demonstrate the age-related changes in multimodality digit span under a research design in which level of education is controlled. Volunteer participants (n = 1183) were distributed over levels of age (13-98 years) and education (5-8, 9-11, and 12+ years). Digit span was measured through 11 scores of the Visual Aural Digit Span Test-Revised on aural or visual stimulation and oral or written response execution, thus allowing for the measurement of intra- and intersensory integration. The increase in digit span scores reversed to a decrease with early adulthood. The slope of the regression line was small but significant. A 4 x 3 x 2 multivariate analysis of variance showed a significant effect of age and education on a combined score comprising the 11 digit span scores. Differences of age and education were predicted by the auditory and visual input scores. The article discusses the cognitive correlates and the age-related changes in digit span from the biological standpoint.

[Standardization of Turkish form of metacognition questionnaire for children and adolescents: the relationships with anxiety and obsessive-compulsive symptoms]. / Üstbilis Ölçegi Çocuk ve Ergen Formunun Türkçe Standardizasyonu, Kaygi ve Obsesif-Kompülsif Belirtilerle Iliskisi.

OBJECTIVE: There were two aims of the present study. The first aim was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Metacognition Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (MCQ-C) among Turkish children and adolescents. The second aim was to analyze relationships between metacognitive processes, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms among Turkish children and adolescents. METHOD: Four hundred and seventy primary and high school students (205 female, 265 male) from 71 different public schools in Istanbul participated in the study. Three questionnaires were used. In addition to MCQ-C, State-Trait Anxiety Scale for Children and Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory were administrated in the study. RESULTS: The Turkish form of MCQ-C showed acceptable to good test-retest reliability and good internal consistency and convergent validity. Construct validity was evaluated by confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS. The fit indices of confirmatory factor analysis suggested an acceptable fit to a four-factor model consistent with the original MCQ-C. Significant positive correlations between subscales of MCQ-C and measures of anxiety and obsessive-compulsive symptoms provided further support for the convergent validity of the Turkish form of MCQ-C. Group comparisons showed that the effect of age was significant on the MCQ-C positive meta-worry subscale only; on the other hand, effect of gender was significant on MCQ-C negative meta-worry subscale and total score. CONCLUSION: The psychometric properties of Turkish form of MCQ-C showed that the instrument is a valuable addition to the assessment of metacognition for Turkish children and adolescents.

Attention in sub-clinical obsessive-compulsive checkers.

The aim of the study was to explore differential attention profiles, according to attention types, in sub-clinical obsessive-compulsive checkers compared to controls. To examine attention biases in obsessive-compulsive phenomena, we compared sub-clinical checkers to non-checkers on their recall and recognition performances, using neutral and threat-relevant stimuli in three attention paradigms: focused attention, divided attention, and passive attention. Forty-six volunteer university students participated in the study: 24 checkers (14 males, 10 females), and 22 non-checkers (15 males, 7 females). We found that the checkers' recall and recognition performances were higher than those of the non-checkers for threat-relevant stimuli. Even though instructions and tasks were different in each attention paradigm, the checkers showed similar attention biases in all paradigms. Results indicate that there is an attention bias in obsessive-compulsive checkers that is independent from the type of attention.