The relation between locus of control and coping in two contexts: age as a moderator variable.

We examined the relation between locus of control and coping as moderated by age and context. A total of 96 adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults were administered Lazarus's Ways of Coping questionnaire, a situation-specific controllability measure, a defensive coping questionnaire, and Levenson's Internality, Powerfulness of Others, and Chance global locus of control scales for challenging and threatening contexts. Age moderated the relation between locus of control and coping. Internality was positively related to escape-avoidance, hostile reaction, and self-blame for younger individuals and negatively related for older adults. A belief in powerfulness of others was positively related to planful problem-solving and self-controlling in older adults and negatively related for younger individuals. Finally, a belief in chance was positively related to distancing and self-controlling for older adults and negatively related for younger individuals. The implication that dimensions of control vary with age is discussed.

The effect of time on static stretch on the flexibility of the hamstring muscles.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: To date, there are no reports comparing duration of static stretch in humans on joint range of motion (ROM) and hamstring muscle flexibility. The purpose of this study was to examine the length of time the hamstring muscles should be placed in a sustained stretched position to maximally increase ROM. SUBJECTS: Fifty-seven subjects (40 men, 17 women), ranging in age from 21 to 37 years and with limited hamstring muscle flexibility (ie, 30 degrees loss of knee extension measured with femur held at 90 degrees of hip flexion), were randomly assigned to one of four groups. Three groups stretched 5 days per week for 15, 30, and 60 seconds, respectively. The fourth group, which served as a control group, did not stretch. METHODS: Before and after 6 weeks of stretching, flexibility of the hamstring muscles was determined by measuring knee extension ROM with the femur maintained in 90 degrees of hip flexion. Data were analyzed with a 4 x 2 analysis of variance (group x test) for repeated measures on one variable. RESULTS: The data analysis revealed a significant group x test interaction, indicating that the change in flexibility was dependent on the duration of stretching. Further post hoc analysis revealed that 30 and 60 seconds of stretching were more effective at increasing flexibility of the hamstring muscles (as determined by increased ROM of knee extension) than stretching for 15 seconds or no stretching. In addition, no significant difference existed between stretching for 30 seconds and for 1 minute, indicating that 30 seconds of stretching the hamstring muscles was as effective as the longer duration of 1 minute. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: The results of this study suggest that a duration of 30 seconds is an effective time of stretching for enhancing the flexibility of the hamstring muscles. Given the information that no increase in flexibility of the hamstring muscles occurred by increasing the duration of stretching from 30 to 60 seconds, the use of the longer duration of stretching for an acute effect must be questioned.

The effect of time and frequency of static stretching on flexibility of the hamstring muscles.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Frequency and duration of static stretching have not been extensively examined. Additionally, the effect of multiple stretches per day has not been evaluated. The purpose of this study was to determine the optimal time and frequency of static stretching to increase flexibility of the hamstring muscles, as measured by knee extension range of motion (ROM). SUBJECTS: Ninety-three subjects (61 men, 32 women) ranging in age from 21 to 39 years and who had limited hamstring muscle flexibility were randomly assigned to one of five groups. The four stretching groups stretched 5 days per week for 6 weeks. The fifth group, which served as a control, did not stretch. METHODS: Data were analyzed with a 5 x 2 (group x test) two-way analysis of variance for repeated measures on one variable (test). RESULTS: The change in flexibility appeared to be dependent on the duration and frequency of stretching. Further statistical analysis of the data indicated that the groups that stretched had more ROM than did the control group, but no differences were found among the stretching groups. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: The results of this study suggest that a 30-second duration is an effective amount of time to sustain a hamstring muscle stretch in order to increase ROM. No increase in flexibility occurred when the duration of stretching was increased from 30 to 60 seconds or when the frequency of stretching was increased from one to three times per day.

The effect of static stretch and dynamic range of motion training on the flexibility of the hamstring muscles.

To date, limited information exists describing a relatively new stretching technique, dynamic range of motion (DROM). The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of DROM with static stretch on hamstring flexibility. Fifty-eight subjects, ranging in age from 21 to 41 years and with limited hamstring flexibility (defined as 30 degrees loss of knee extension measured with the femur held at 90 degrees of hip flexion), were randomly assigned to one of three groups. One group performed DROM 5 days a week by lying supine with the hip held in 90 degrees of flexion. The subject then actively moved the leg into knee extension (5 seconds), held the leg in end range knee extension for 5 seconds, and then slowly lowered the leg to the initial position (5 seconds). These movements were performed six times per session (30 seconds of total actual stretching time). The second group performed one 30-second static stretch, 5 days per week. The third group served as a control group and did not stretch. Before and after 6 weeks of training, flexibility of the hamstring muscles was determined in all three groups by measuring knee extension range of motion (ROM) with the femur maintained in 90 degrees of hip flexion. Data were analyzed with a 2 x 3 (test x group) two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures on one variable (test) and appropriate post hoc analyses. The results of the two-way ANOVA revealed a significant interaction. Further statistical post hoc analysis of data to interpret the interaction revealed significant differences between the control group (gain = 0.70 degree) and both stretching groups, as well as a significant difference between the static stretch group (gain = 11.42 degrees) and the DROM group (gain = 4.26 degrees). The results of this study suggest that, although both static stretch and DROM will increase hamstring flexibility, a 30-second static stretch was more effective than the newer technique, DROM, for enhancing flexibility. Given the fact that a 30-second static stretch increased ROM more than two times that of DROM, the use of DROM to increase flexibility of muscle must be questioned.

Coping strategies from the perspective of two developmental markers: age and social reasoning.

In this study, we examined coping from a developmental perspective, including its relation to age and social cognitive maturity. The 60 participants, who ranged from adolescents to mature adults, were given Lazarus' Ways of Coping Scale. This consists of both an emotion-focused and problem-focused coping score and two measures of social reasoning performance. Social reasoning was the best predictor of emotion-focused coping, above and beyond years of education and age. None of the developmental variables predicted problem-focused coping. Analyses examining the effect of perceived controllability of the stressful situation on coping demonstrated that it differentially mediated choice of coping strategy across age groups. Whereas older participants endorsed more problem-focused strategies in perceived controllable situations and emotion-focused strategies in perceived uncontrollable situations, adolescents endorsed emotion-focused and defensive coping styles, irrespective of perceived controllability. Implications for the study of development of coping styles in affectively salient contexts is discussed.

A cross-sectional comparison of adaptive coping in adulthood.

The present study is a cross-sectional comparison of coping behaviors in adulthood. Ninety-six adolescents, young adults, middle adults, and older adults were administered Lazarus' Ways of Coping questionnaire and a defensive coping scale. Patterns of coping and perceived effectiveness of coping strategies were examined in both threatening and challenging contexts. Results indicated that patterns of coping varied across age groups, with adolescents and younger adults endorsing more defensive mechanisms, such as escape-avoidance, hostile reaction, and self blame. Instrumental strategies were used more in challenging situations, whereas palliative strategies were endorsed in threatening situations across all age groups. Patterns of perceived effectiveness were similar to those for use, but correlations of use with perceived effectiveness varied between age groups. Findings supported the hypothesis that adaptive coping processes characterize later adulthood. Implications for future research in the area of development and coping are discussed.

The influence of divorce on coping in adolescence.

The present study explored the relations between family status and coping processes in adolescence. Given the inconsistent findings with regard to the divorce experience, our intent was to determine if coping strategies endorsed by adolescents are related to family status. Further, appraisals of stressfulness, controllability, and perceived outcome of stressful situations were examined in relation to family status and coping strategies endorsed. Adolescents of divorced parents more frequently endorsed theoretically less mature, defensive coping strategies. Sex differences were noted in the intact group, while males and females in the divorce group were more alike in their coping responses. Appraisal variables were differentially related to coping behaviors in each group.