Wnt5a promotes Frizzled-4 signalosome assembly by stabilizing cysteine-rich domain dimerization.

Wnt/ß-catenin signaling is activated when extracellular Wnt ligands bind Frizzled (FZD) receptors at the cell membrane. Wnts bind FZD cysteine-rich domains (CRDs) with high affinity through a palmitoylated N-terminal "thumb" and a disulfide-stabilized C-terminal "index finger," yet how these binding events trigger receptor activation and intracellular signaling remains unclear. Here we report the crystal structure of the Frizzled-4 (FZD4) CRD in complex with palmitoleic acid, which reveals a CRD tetramer consisting of two cross-braced CRD dimers. Each dimer is stabilized by interactions of one hydrophobic palmitoleic acid tail with two CRD palmitoleoyl-binding grooves oriented end to end, suggesting that the Wnt palmitoleoyl group stimulates CRD-CRD interaction. Using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) in live cells, we show that WNT5A stimulates dimerization of membrane-anchored FZD4 CRDs and oligomerization of full-length FZD4, which requires the integrity of CRD palmitoleoyl-binding residues. These results suggest that FZD receptors may form signalosomes in response to Wnt binding through the CRDs and that the Wnt palmitoleoyl group is important in promoting these interactions. These results complement our understanding of lipoprotein receptor-related proteins 5 and 6 (LRP5/6), Dishevelled, and Axin signalosome assembly and provide a more complete model for Wnt signalosome assembly both intracellularly and at the membrane.

Structural assembly of the nucleic-acid-binding Thp3-Csn12-Sem1 complex functioning in mRNA splicing.

PCI domain proteins play important roles in post-transcriptional gene regulation. In the TREX-2 complex, PCI domain-containing Sac3 and Thp1 proteins and accessory Sem1 protein form a ternary complex required for mRNA nuclear export. In contrast, structurally related Thp3-Csn12-Sem1 complex mediates pre-mRNA splicing. In this study, we determined the structure of yeast Thp3186-470-Csn12-Sem1 ternary complex at 2.9 Å resolution. Both Thp3 and Csn12 structures have a typical PCI structural fold, characterized by a stack of α-helices capped by a C-terminal winged-helix (WH) domain. The overall structure of Thp3186-470-Csn12-Sem1 complex has an inverted V-shape with Thp3 and Csn12 forming the two sides. A fishhook-shaped Sem1 makes extensive contacts on Csn12 to stabilize its conformation. The overall structure of Thp3186-470-Csn12-Sem1 complex resembles the previously reported Sac3-Thp1-Sem1 complex, but also has significant structural differences. The C-terminal WH domains of Thp3 and Csn12 form a continuous surface to bind different forms of nucleic acids with micromolar affinity. Mutation of the basic residues in the WH domains of Thp3 and Csn12 affects nucleic acid binding in vitro and mRNA splicing in vivo. The Thp3-Csn12-Sem1 structure provides a foundation for further exploring the structural elements required for its specific recruitment to spliceosome for pre-mRNA splicing.

Structure of the platelet glycoprotein Ib receptor in complex with a novel antithrombotic agent.

Agkisacucetin, a snake C-type lectin-like protein isolated from the venom of Deinagkistrodon acutus (formerly Agkistrodon acutus), is a novel antithrombotic drug candidate in phase 2 clinical trials. Agkisacucetin specifically recognizes the platelet surface receptor glycoprotein Ib α chain (GPIbα) to block GPIb and von Willebrand factor (VWF). In this study, we solved the crystal structure of the GPIbα N-terminal domain (residues 1-305) in complex with agkisacucetin to understand their molecular recognition mechanism. The crystal structure showed that agkisacucetin primarily contacts GPIbα at the C-terminal part of the conserved leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain (LRR-6 to LRR-8) and the previously described "ß-switch" region through the ß chain. In addition, we found that agkisacucetin α chain contacts part of the GPIbα C-terminal peptide after the LRR domain through complementary charge interactions. This C-terminal peptide plays a key role in GPIbα and thrombin recognition. Therefore, our structure revealed that agkisacucetin can sterically block the interaction between the GPIb receptor and VWF and thrombin proteins to inhibit platelet function. Our structural work provides key molecular insights into how an antithrombotic drug candidate recognizes the GPIb receptor to modulate platelet function to inhibit thrombosis.

Distinct oligomeric structures of the YoeB-YefM complex provide insights into the conditional cooperativity of type II toxin-antitoxin system.

YoeB-YefM, the widespread type II toxin-antitoxin (TA) module, binds to its own promoter to autoregulate its transcription: repress or induce transcription under normal or stress conditions, respectively. It remains unclear how YoeB-YefM regulates its transcription depending on the YoeB to YefM TA ratio. We find that YoeB-YefM complex from S.aureus exists as two distinct oligomeric assemblies: heterotetramer (YoeB-YefM2-YoeB) and heterohexamer (YoeB-YefM2-YefM2-YoeB) with low and high DNA-binding affinities, respectively. Structures of the heterotetramer alone and heterohexamer bound to promoter DNA reveals that YefM C-terminal domain undergoes disorder to order transition upon YoeB binding, which allosterically affects the conformation of N-terminal DNA-binding domain. At TA ratio of 1:2, unsaturated binding of YoeB to the C-terminal regions of YefM dimer forms an optimal heterohexamer for DNA binding, and two YefM dimers with N-terminal domains dock into the adjacent major grooves of DNA to specifically recognize the 5'-TTGTACAN6AGTACAA-3' palindromic sequence, resulting in transcriptional repression. In contrast, at TA ratio of 1:1, binding of two additional YoeB molecules onto the heterohexamer induces the completely ordered conformation of YefM and disassembles the heterohexamer into two heterotetramers, which are unable to bind the promoter DNA optimally due to steric clashes, hence derepresses TA operon transcription.

Structural basis of JAZ repression of MYC transcription factors in jasmonate signalling.

The plant hormone jasmonate plays crucial roles in regulating plant responses to herbivorous insects and microbial pathogens and is an important regulator of plant growth and development. Key mediators of jasmonate signalling include MYC transcription factors, which are repressed by jasmonate ZIM-domain (JAZ) transcriptional repressors in the resting state. In the presence of active jasmonate, JAZ proteins function as jasmonate co-receptors by forming a hormone-dependent complex with COI1, the F-box subunit of an SCF-type ubiquitin E3 ligase. The hormone-dependent formation of the COI1-JAZ co-receptor complex leads to ubiquitination and proteasome-dependent degradation of JAZ repressors and release of MYC proteins from transcriptional repression. The mechanism by which JAZ proteins repress MYC transcription factors and how JAZ proteins switch between the repressor function in the absence of hormone and the co-receptor function in the presence of hormone remain enigmatic. Here we show that Arabidopsis MYC3 undergoes pronounced conformational changes when bound to the conserved Jas motif of the JAZ9 repressor. The Jas motif, previously shown to bind to hormone as a partly unwound helix, forms a complete α-helix that displaces the amino (N)-terminal helix of MYC3 and becomes an integral part of the MYC N-terminal fold. In this position, the Jas helix competitively inhibits MYC3 interaction with the MED25 subunit of the transcriptional Mediator complex. Our structural and functional studies elucidate a dynamic molecular switch mechanism that governs the repression and activation of a major plant hormone pathway.

Crystal structure of rhodopsin bound to arrestin by femtosecond X-ray laser.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) signal primarily through G proteins or arrestins. Arrestin binding to GPCRs blocks G protein interaction and redirects signalling to numerous G-protein-independent pathways. Here we report the crystal structure of a constitutively active form of human rhodopsin bound to a pre-activated form of the mouse visual arrestin, determined by serial femtosecond X-ray laser crystallography. Together with extensive biochemical and mutagenesis data, the structure reveals an overall architecture of the rhodopsin-arrestin assembly in which rhodopsin uses distinct structural elements, including transmembrane helix 7 and helix 8, to recruit arrestin. Correspondingly, arrestin adopts the pre-activated conformation, with a ∼20° rotation between the amino and carboxy domains, which opens up a cleft in arrestin to accommodate a short helix formed by the second intracellular loop of rhodopsin. This structure provides a basis for understanding GPCR-mediated arrestin-biased signalling and demonstrates the power of X-ray lasers for advancing the frontiers of structural biology.

Structure and function of Norrin in assembly and activation of a Frizzled 4-Lrp5/6 complex.

Norrin is a cysteine-rich growth factor that is required for angiogenesis in the eye, ear, brain, and female reproductive organs. It functions as an atypical Wnt ligand by specifically binding to the Frizzled 4 (Fz4) receptor. Here we report the crystal structure of Norrin, which reveals a unique dimeric structure with each monomer adopting a conserved cystine knot fold. Functional studies demonstrate that the novel Norrin dimer interface is required for Fz4 activation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Norrin contains separate binding sites for Fz4 and for the Wnt ligand coreceptor Lrp5 (low-density lipoprotein-related protein 5) or Lrp6. Instead of inducing Fz4 dimerization, Norrin induces the formation of a ternary complex with Fz4 and Lrp5/6 by binding to their respective extracellular domains. These results provide crucial insights into the assembly and activation of the Norrin-Fz4-Lrp5/6 signaling complex.

The R882H DNMT3A hot spot mutation stabilizes the formation of large DNMT3A oligomers with low DNA methyltransferase activity.

DNMT3A (DNA methyltransferase 3A) is a de novo DNA methyltransferase responsible for establishing CpG methylation patterns within the genome. DNMT3A activity is essential for normal development, and its dysfunction has been linked to developmental disorders and cancer. DNMT3A is frequently mutated in myeloid malignancies with the majority of mutations occurring at Arg-882, where R882H mutations are most frequent. The R882H mutation causes a reduction in DNA methyltransferase activity and hypomethylation at differentially-methylated regions within the genome, ultimately preventing hematopoietic stem cell differentiation and leading to leukemogenesis. Although the means by which the R882H DNMT3A mutation reduces enzymatic activity has been the subject of several studies, the precise mechanism by which this occurs has been elusive. Herein, we demonstrate that in the context of the full-length DNMT3A protein, the R882H mutation stabilizes the formation of large oligomeric DNMT3A species to reduce the overall DNA methyltransferase activity of the mutant protein as well as the WT-R882H complex in a dominant-negative manner. This shift in the DNMT3A oligomeric equilibrium and the resulting reduced enzymatic activity can be partially rescued in the presence of oligomer-disrupting DNMT3L, as well as DNMT3A point mutations along the oligomer-forming interface of the catalytic domain. In addition to modulating the oligomeric state of DNMT3A, the R882H mutation also leads to a DNA-binding defect, which may further reduce enzymatic activity. These findings provide a mechanistic explanation for the observed loss of DNMT3A activity associated with the R882H hot spot mutation in cancer.

Structural insights into alternative splicing-mediated desensitization of jasmonate signaling.

Jasmonate ZIM-domain (JAZ) transcriptional repressors play a key role in regulating jasmonate (JA) signaling in plants. Below a threshold concentration of jasmonoyl isoleucine (JA-Ile), the active form of JA, the C-terminal Jas motif of JAZ proteins binds MYC transcription factors to repress JA signaling. With increasing JA-Ile concentration, the Jas motif binds to JA-Ile and the COI1 subunit of the SCFCOI1 E3 ligase, which mediates ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of JAZ repressors, resulting in derepression of MYC transcription factors. JA signaling subsequently becomes desensitized, in part by feedback induction of JAZ splice variants that lack the C-terminal Jas motif but include an N-terminal cryptic MYC-interaction domain (CMID). The CMID sequence is dissimilar to the Jas motif and is incapable of recruiting SCFCOI1, allowing CMID-containing JAZ splice variants to accumulate in the presence of JA and to re-repress MYC transcription factors as an integral part of reestablishing signal homeostasis. The mechanism by which the CMID represses MYC transcription factors remains elusive. Here we describe the crystal structure of the MYC3-CMIDJAZ10 complex. In contrast to the Jas motif, which forms a single continuous helix when bound to MYC3, the CMID adopts a loop-helix-loop-helix architecture with modular interactions with both the Jas-binding groove and the backside of the Jas-interaction domain of MYC3. This clamp-like interaction allows the CMID to bind MYC3 tightly and block access of MED25 (a subunit of the Mediator coactivator complex) to the MYC3 transcriptional activation domain, shedding light on the enigmatic mechanism by which JAZ splice variants desensitize JA signaling.

Structural basis for molecular recognition of folic acid by folate receptors.

Folate receptors (FRα, FRß and FRγ) are cysteine-rich cell-surface glycoproteins that bind folate with high affinity to mediate cellular uptake of folate. Although expressed at very low levels in most tissues, folate receptors, especially FRα, are expressed at high levels in numerous cancers to meet the folate demand of rapidly dividing cells under low folate conditions. The folate dependency of many tumours has been therapeutically and diagnostically exploited by administration of anti-FRα antibodies, high-affinity antifolates, folate-based imaging agents and folate-conjugated drugs and toxins. To understand how folate binds its receptors, we determined the crystal structure of human FRα in complex with folic acid at 2.8 Å resolution. FRα has a globular structure stabilized by eight disulphide bonds and contains a deep open folate-binding pocket comprised of residues that are conserved in all receptor subtypes. The folate pteroate moiety is buried inside the receptor, whereas its glutamate moiety is solvent-exposed and sticks out of the pocket entrance, allowing it to be conjugated to drugs without adversely affecting FRα binding. The extensive interactions between the receptor and ligand readily explain the high folate-binding affinity of folate receptors and provide a template for designing more specific drugs targeting the folate receptor system.

Deconvoluting AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) adenine nucleotide binding and sensing.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a central cellular energy sensor that adapts metabolism and growth to the energy state of the cell. AMPK senses the ratio of adenine nucleotides (adenylate energy charge) by competitive binding of AMP, ADP, and ATP to three sites (CBS1, CBS3, and CBS4) in its γ-subunit. Because these three binding sites are functionally interconnected, it remains unclear how nucleotides bind to individual sites, which nucleotides occupy each site under physiological conditions, and how binding to one site affects binding to the other sites. Here, we comprehensively analyze nucleotide binding to wild-type and mutant AMPK protein complexes by quantitative competition assays and by hydrogen-deuterium exchange MS. We also demonstrate that NADPH, in addition to the known AMPK ligand NADH, directly and competitively binds AMPK at the AMP-sensing CBS3 site. Our findings reveal how AMP binding to one site affects the conformation and adenine nucleotide binding at the other two sites and establish CBS3, and not CBS1, as the high affinity exchangeable AMP/ADP/ATP-binding site. We further show that AMP binding at CBS4 increases AMP binding at CBS3 by 2 orders of magnitude and reverses the AMP/ATP preference of CBS3. Together, these results illustrate how the three CBS sites collaborate to enable highly sensitive detection of cellular energy states to maintain the tight ATP homeostastis required for cellular metabolism.

The C-terminus of ubiquitin plays a critical role in deamidase Lpg2148 recognition.

By bearing a papain-like core structure and a cysteine-based catalytic triad, deamidase can convert glutamine to glutamic acid or asparagine to aspartic acid to modify the functions of host target proteins resulting in the blocking of eukaryotic host cell function. Legionella pneumophila effector Lpg2148 (MvcA) is a deamidase, a structural homolog of cycle inhibiting factor (Cif) effectors. Lpg2148 and Cif effectors are functionally diverse, with Lpg2148 only catalyzing ubiquitin but not NEDD8. However, a detailed understanding of substrate specificity is still missing. Here, we resolved the crystal structure of Lpg2148 at 2.5 Šresolution and obtained rigid-body modeling of Lpg2148 with C-terminus deleted ubiquitin (1-68) (ubΔc) complex using HADDOCK, which shows that the C-terminus of ubiquitin is flexible in recognition. We also conducted the truncated analysis to demonstrate that Leu71 of ubiquitin is necessary for its interaction with Lpg2148. Moreover, Val33 of Lpg2148 at the edge of a channel plays a vital role in the interaction and is limited by the length of the C-terminus of ubiquitin, which may help to explain the selectivity of ubiquitin over NEDD8. In summary, these results enrich our knowledge of substrate recognition of deamidase.

Structural and functional study of D-glucuronyl C5-epimerase.

Heparan sulfate (HS) is a glycosaminoglycan present on the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix, which interacts with diverse signal molecules and is essential for many physiological processes including embryonic development, cell growth, inflammation, and blood coagulation. D-glucuronyl C5-epimerase (Glce) is a crucial enzyme in HS synthesis, converting D-glucuronic acid to L-iduronic acid to increase HS flexibility. This modification of HS is important for protein ligand recognition. We have determined the crystal structures of Glce in apo-form (unliganded) and in complex with heparin hexasaccharide (product of Glce following O-sulfation), both in a stable dimer conformation. A Glce dimer contains two catalytic sites, each at a positively charged cleft in C-terminal α-helical domains binding one negatively charged hexasaccharide. Based on the structural and mutagenesis studies, three tyrosine residues, Tyr(468), Tyr(528), and Tyr(546), in the active site were found to be crucial for the enzymatic activity. The complex structure also reveals the mechanism of product inhibition (i.e. 2-O- and 6-O-sulfation of HS keeps the C5 carbon of L-iduronic acid away from the active-site tyrosine residues). Our structural and functional data advance understanding of the key modification in HS biosynthesis.

Structure of a PLS-class pentatricopeptide repeat protein provides insights into mechanism of RNA recognition.

Pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) proteins are sequence-specific RNA-binding proteins that form a pervasive family of proteins conserved in yeast, plants, and humans. The plant PPR proteins are grouped mainly into the P and PLS classes. Here, we report the crystal structure of a PLS-class PPR protein from Arabidopsis thaliana called THA8L (THA8-like) at 2.0 Å. THA8L resembles THA8 (thylakoid assembly 8), a protein that is required for the splicing of specific group II introns of genes involved in biogenesis of chloroplast thylakoid membranes. The THA8L structure contains three P-type PPR motifs flanked by one L-type motif and one S-type motif. We identified several putative THA8L-binding sites, enriched with purine sequences, in the group II introns. Importantly, THA8L has strong binding preference for single-stranded RNA over single-stranded DNA or double-stranded RNA. Structural analysis revealed that THA8L contains two extensive patches of positively charged residues next to the residues that are proposed to comprise the RNA-binding codes. Mutations in these two positively charged patches greatly reduced THA8L RNA-binding activity. On the basis of these data, we constructed a model of THA8L-RNA binding that is dependent on two forces: one is the interaction between nucleotide bases and specific amino acids in the PPR motifs (codes), and the other is the interaction between the negatively charged RNA backbone and positively charged residues of PPR motifs. Together, these results further our understanding of the mechanism of PPR protein-RNA interactions.

Benzoquinone ansamycin 17AAG binds to mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel and inhibits cell invasion.

Geldanamycin and its derivative 17AAG [17-(Allylamino)-17-demethoxygeldanamycin, telatinib] bind selectively to the Hsp90 chaperone protein and inhibit its function. We discovered that these drugs associate with mitochondria, specifically to the mitochondrial membrane voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) via a hydrophobic interaction that is independent of HSP90. In vitro, 17AAG functions as a Ca(2+) mitochondrial regulator similar to benzoquinone-ubiquinones like Ub0. All of these compounds increase intracellular Ca(2+) and diminish the plasma membrane cationic current, inhibiting urokinase activity and cell invasion. In contrast, the HSP90 inhibitor radicicol, lacking a bezoquinone moiety, has no measurable effect on cationic current and is less effective in influencing intercellular Ca(2+) concentration. We conclude that some of the effects of 17-AAG and other ansamycins are due to their effects on VDAC and that this may play a role in their clinical activity.

Lipid modification in Wnt structure and function.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Wnt proteins are morphogens encoded by 19 mammalian genes that play essential roles in embryonic development, stem cell renewal, and adult tissue homeostasis. The recent publication of the first crystal structure of a Wnt protein represents a key step in the study of Wnt signaling. RECENT FINDINGS: We discuss the basic aspects of Wnt signaling, provide historical background for why the proteins have been so challenging to study from a biochemical perspective, describe the lipid modifications that occur to Wnt proteins, and then discuss the implications of the recently reported crystal structure. SUMMARY: The recent determination of the Wnt8-Fz8 structure has created new opportunities to better understand the mechanisms by which Wnt proteins activate downstream signaling pathways and has further clarified why lipid modification of Wnt is required for activation.

Structural and biochemical characterization of a nucleotide hydrolase from Streptococcus pneumonia.

In this report, we structurally and biochemically characterized the unknown gene product SP1746 from Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 4. Various crystal structures of SP1746 in the apo form and in complex with different nucleotides were determined. SP1746 is a globular protein, which belongs to the histidine-aspartate (HD) domain superfamily with two Fe3+ ions in the active site that are coordinated by key active site residues and water molecules. All nucleotides bind in a similar orientation in the active site with their phosphate groups anchored to the diiron cluster. Biochemically, SP1746 hydrolyzes different nucleotide substrates. SP1746 most effectively hydrolyzes diadenosine tetraphosphate (Ap4A) to two ADPs. Based on the aforementioned data, we annotated SP1746 as an Ap4A hydrolase, belonging to the YqeK family. Our in vitro data indicate a potential role for SP1746 in regulating Ap4A homeostasis, which requires validation with in vivo experiments in bacteria in the future.

Discovery of Aminopyrazole Derivatives as Potent Inhibitors of Wild-Type and Gatekeeper Mutant FGFR2 and 3.

Fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR) 2 and 3 have been established as drivers of numerous types of cancer with multiple drugs approved or entering late stage clinical trials. A limitation of current inhibitors is vulnerability to gatekeeper resistance mutations. Using a combination of targeted high-throughput screening and structure-based drug design, we have developed a series of aminopyrazole based FGFR inhibitors that covalently target a cysteine residue on the P-loop of the kinase. The inhibitors show excellent activity against the wild-type and gatekeeper mutant versions of the enzymes. Further optimization using SAR analysis and structure-based drug design led to analogues with improved potency and drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics properties.

Indoximod opposes the immunosuppressive effects mediated by IDO and TDO via modulation of AhR function and activation of mTORC1.

Indoximod has shaped our understanding of the biology of IDO1 in the control of immune responses, though its mechanism of action has been poorly understood. Previous studies demonstrated that indoximod creates a tryptophan (Trp) sufficiency signal that reactivates mTOR in the context of low Trp concentrations, thus opposing the effects caused by IDO1. Here we extend the understanding of indoximod's mechanism of action by showing that it has pleiotropic effects on immune regulation. Indoximod can have a direct effect on T cells, increasing their proliferation as a result of mTOR reactivation. Further, indoximod modulates the differentiation of CD4+ T cells via the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), which controls transcription of several genes in response to different ligands including kynurenine (Kyn). Indoximod increases the transcription of RORC while inhibiting transcription of FOXP3, thus favoring differentiation to IL-17-producing helper T cells and inhibiting the differentiation of regulatory T cells. These indoximod-driven effects on CD8+ and CD4+ T cells were independent from the activity of IDO/TDO and from the presence of exogenous Kyn, though they do oppose the effects of Kyn produced by these Trp catabolizing enzymes. Indoximod can also downregulate expression of IDO protein in vivo in murine lymph node dendritic cells and in vitro in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells via a mechanism that involves signaling through the AhR. Together, these data improve the understanding of how indoximod influences the effects of IDO, beyond and distinct from direct enzymatic inhibition of the enzyme.