The shoulder joint complex in the throwing motion.

The shoulder joint complex in the overhead athlete is organized to effectively transfer the proximally generated forces distally into the arm. The organization also protects the joints and anatomic structures against the repetitive high velocities, large ranges of motions, and compressive, shear, translational, and distraction loads in the overhead motion while placing the hand in the "launch window." Coupling of the movements of the scapula, clavicle, and humerus results in scapulohumeral rhythm (SHR). Effective SHR requires the clavicle and scapula-and, at times, the mechanically linked claviscapular segment-to move the arm into the task-specific position and motion and requires the humerus to move through the ranges of motion to achieve the specific task in the throwing motion. Alterations in SHR can negatively affect effective shoulder joint complex function in the overhead throwing motion and increase injury risk. There are 4 phases of clavicular, scapular, and claviscapular motion that are coupled with arm motion in SHR. The first 3 phases occur in arm elevation motions from 0°-90° and result in the claviscapula and humerus being placed in task-specific positions. The fourth phase is coupling of claviscapular motion with humeral motion to maintain ball-and-socket kinematics throughout the throwing motion. Alterations in this composite motion are termed "scapular dyskinesis." The dyskinesis is considered an impairment of the efficient mobility of the claviscapular segment of the shoulder complex. The most prevalent problem with scapular dyskinesis is the association of scapular protraction and consequent glenoid antetilt with alterations in humeral rotation and posterior humeral head translation to produce shoulder joint internal impingement. Task effectiveness in overhead throwing is also based on and determined by humeral range of motion, precision of humeral motion, and velocity of humeral motion, as well as humeral and arm position in 3-dimensional space. This activity requires maximum ball-and-socket kinematics to create the highest amount of concavity-compression that creates stability for the joint. There are bony and soft-tissue contributions to this stability. Injuries to the glenoid labrum are among the most common deficits that alter concavity-compression. Clinical evaluation of the shoulder joint complex in the injured throwing athlete should be comprehensive and systematic, following an evaluation pathway for proximal and distal causative factors and including observation of humeral motion. This type of evaluation can result in intervention protocols that address the pathoanatomic, pathophysiological, and pathomechanical deficits identified.

Initial Assessment and Management of Select Musculoskeletal Injuries: A Team Physician Consensus Statement.

ABSTRACT: Musculoskeletal injuries occur frequently in sport during practice, training, and competition. Injury assessment and management are common responsibilities for the team physician. Initial Assessment and Management of Musculoskeletal Injury-A Team Physician Consensus Statement is title 23 in a series of annual consensus documents written for the practicing team physician. This statement was developed by the Team Physician Consensus Conference, an annual project-based alliance of six major professional associations. The goal of this document is to help the team physician improve the care and treatment of the athlete by understanding the initial assessment and management of selected musculoskeletal injuries.

Mass Participation and Tournament Event Management for the Team Physician: A Consensus Statement (2022 Update).

ABSTRACT: Mass participation events include endurance events (e.g., marathon, triathlon) and/or competitive tournaments (e.g., baseball, tennis, football (soccer) tournaments). Event management requires medical administrative and participant care planning. Medical management provides safety advice and care at the event that accounts for large numbers of participants, anticipated injury and illness, variable environment, repeated games or matches, and mixed age groups of varying athletic ability. This document does not pertain to the care of the spectator.

American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons SLAP/Biceps Anchor Study Group evidence review: pathoanatomy and diagnosis in clinically significant labral injuries.

Glenoid superior biceps-labral pathology diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes are an evolving area of shoulder surgery. Historically, described as superior labrum anterior posterior (SLAP) tears, these lesions were identified as a source of pain in throwing athletes. Diagnosis and treatments applied to these SLAP lesions resulted in less than optimal outcomes in some patients and a prevailing sense of confusion. The purpose of this paper is to perform a reappraisal of the anatomy, examination, imaging, and diagnosis by the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons/SLAP biceps study group. We sought to capture emerging concepts and suggest a more unified approach to evaluation and identify specific needs for future research.

Disabled Throwing Shoulder: 2021 Update: Part 2-Pathomechanics and Treatment.

The purpose of this paper is to provide updated information for sports healthcare specialists regarding the disabled throwing shoulder (DTS). A panel of experts, recognized for their experience and expertise in this field, was assembled to address and provide updated information on several topics that have been identified as key areas in creating the DTS spectrum. Each panel member submitted a concise presentation on one of the topics within these areas, each of which were then edited and sent back to the group for their comments and consensus agreement in each area. Part two presents the following consensus conclusions and summary findings regarding pathomechanics and treatment, including (1) internal impingement results from a combination of scapular protraction and humeral head translation; (2) the clinically significant labral injury that represents pathoanatomy can occur at any position around the glenoid, with posterior injuries most common; (3) meticulous history and physical examination, with a thorough kinetic chain assessment, is necessary to comprehensively identify all the factors in the DTS and clinically significant labral injury; (4) surgical treatment should be carefully performed, with specific indications and techniques incorporating low profile implants posterior to the biceps that avoid capsular constraint; (5) rehabilitation should correct all kinetic chain deficits while also developing high-functioning, throwing-specific motor patterns and proper distribution of loads and forces across all joints during throwing; and (6) injury risk modification must focus on individualized athlete workload to avoid overuse. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: V, expert opinion.

Selected issues in sport-related concussion (SRC|mild traumatic brain injury) for the team physician: a consensus statement.

Selected Issues in Sport-Related Concussion (SRC|Mild Traumatic Brain Injury) for the Team Physician: A Consensus Statement is title 22 in a series of annual consensus documents written for the practicing team physician. This document provides an overview of selected medical issues important to team physicians who are responsible for athletes with sports-related concussion (SRC). This statement was developed by the Team Physician Consensus Conference (TPCC), an annual project-based alliance of six major professional associations. The goal of this TPCC statement is to assist the team physician in providing optimal medical care for the athlete with SRC.

Selected Issues in Sport-Related Concussion (SRC | Mild Traumatic Brain Injury) for the Team Physician: A Consensus Statement.

ABSTRACT: Selected Issues in Sport-Related Concussion (SRC | Mild Traumatic Brain Injury) for the Team Physician: A Consensus Statement is title 22 in a series of annual consensus articles written for the practicing team physician. This document provides an overview of select medical issues important to team physicians who are responsible for athletes with sports-related concussion (SRC). This statement was developed by the Team Physician Consensus Conference (TPCC), an annual project-based alliance of six major professional associations. The goal of this TPCC statement is to assist the team physician in providing optimal medical care for the athlete with SRC.

Examination of the Shoulder for Beginners and Experts: An Update.

Compared with other joints in the body, examination of the shoulder continues to be a challenge for practitioners, whether they be trainers, physical therapists, primary care physicians, or orthopedic surgeons. There are many reasons for this challenge, the primary being the highly complex architecture of bony and soft-tissue anatomy which allows for the greatest range of motion of any joint of the body. As a result, the clinical examination as Ralph Hertel, MD, has commented "perhaps it is just not easy." His comment reflects that one cannot just expect to understand how to interpret the examination unless the observer has some knowledge of how the shoulder complex works, how to perform the basics of the examination, how to interpret radiographs, and how to integrate these variables into a diagnosis. This chapter will attempt to delineate the principles which make the shoulder examination more attainable, plus highlight the areas where a combination of factors is necessary to arrive at a diagnosis.

New Paradigms in the Throwing Shoulder: Labral Injury, Surgery, and Rehabilitation.

Knowledge regarding the importance of the superior labrum in shoulder function is evolving as biomechanical and clinical studies define the roles of the labrum in shoulder function and dysfunction. The diagnosis of the clinically significant labral injury, the alteration in labral anatomy that is associated with the production of clinical symptoms and dysfunction and requires management, is based on specific history and clinical examination findings that point to the loss of labral roles. Surgical management should address all aspects of the altered labral anatomy and repair the labral structure to allow normal labral roles without excessive biceps tension. It may be that the superior labral injury may be a normal variant in throwers, allowing the thrower to achieve optimum cocking in external rotation. Specific guidelines for intraoperative assessment of the labral injury and criteria for determining the adequacy of the repair may be followed. Emerging data suggest that approximately 50% of patients with a clinically significant labral injury can become asymptomatic with guided rehabilitation. Rehabilitation has specific goals to restore the demonstrated deficits, should be organized into specific phases based on the patient's injury and functional capability, and should have specific criteria to allow return to play.

New Paradigms in the Throwing Shoulder: Pathophysiology and Examination.

There continues to be a high incidence of shoulder injuries in throwing athletes, with sometimes disappointing return-to-play outcomes, creating an increased need to understand the pathophysiology of the injury and to better characterize the injury during the clinical examination. Current concepts suggest that the disabled throwing shoulder is a useful construct to develop a more comprehensive view of the complex local and distant musculoskeletal alterations that can be seen associated with the clinical symptoms. The pathophysiology can be seen as a cascade to injury, in which proximal or distal deficits in motion, strength, and strength balance can affect force production, joint position, and joint loads throughout the kinetic chain. Local imbalances between force production and load can create anatomic injury or create distant imbalances that create the injury. The evaluation then becomes a more comprehensive one, necessitating a look at all areas of the kinetic chain and evaluation of them in the context of the requirements on the structures during each of the phases of the throwing motion. Specific testing for core stability, scapular stability and motion, and local muscle strength, strength balance, and flexibility needs to be performed, as well as tests for tissue injury.

Pain catastrophizing behaviors and their relation to poor patient-reported outcomes after scapular muscle reattachment.

HYPOTHESIS: We hypothesized that the patient-reported status following treatment of traumatic scapular muscle detachment would improve from the preoperative status and that higher pain catastrophizing scores would be more common in patients with poor postsurgical outcomes. METHODS: We studied 50 patients who met the diagnostic criteria for scapular muscle detachment and in whom rehabilitation failed. American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) scores were collected preoperatively and postoperatively. Patients completed a 7-point global rating of change scale, the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS), and a 10-point satisfaction scale (0-3, not satisfied [NS]; 4-6, moderately satisfied [MS]; or 7-10, highly satisfied [HS]) focused on current shoulder use. Statistical analyses compared preoperative and postoperative ASES scores, compared the 3 levels of satisfaction and ASES scores, and compared ASES scores in patients with low PCS scores (LPCS) (<20) versus high PCS scores (HPCS) (≥20). Significance was set at P < .05. RESULTS: ASES scores significantly improved following surgery (42 ± 20 preoperatively and 73 ± 21 postoperatively) (P < .001), and the global rating of change score was 2 ± 2. There were 39 LPCS patients (mean PCS, 7 ± 6) and 11 HPCS patients (mean PCS, 34 ± 8). HPCS patients had significantly lower postoperative ASES scores (53 ± 18) than LPCS patients (79 ± 18) (P < .001). The MS patients (n = 11) had significantly higher ASES scores than the NS patients (n = 10) (P = .003), while the HS patients (n = 29) had significantly greater ASES scores than the other groups (P ≤ .001). Of the HPCS patients, 90% were in the NS and MS groups compared with 10% in the HS group. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical restoration for scapular muscle detachment can result in meaningful improvement in outcomes. Pain catastrophizing negatively affected the self-reported outcome scores.

Value on the Front End: Making the Effective Diagnosis for Optimal Treatment.

Much effort is being made to quantitate and improve the outcomes associated with medical treatment. These outcomes are defined as how the patient did after an intervention and may be termed "value on the back end" of the treatment process. The diagnosis guides the content and timing of the treatment, and may be considered the "value on the front end" that optimizes the treatment process. The diagnosis can be defined as "that body of information, collected through the process of evaluating the patient's health problem, that determines the content and timing of the treatment of the health problem." An Institute of Medicine monograph has documented "troubling" deficiencies in the diagnostic process and has suggested guidelines to establish a comprehensive and effective diagnosis, which should include anatomic and patient-derived factors, have multidisciplinary input, have implications for treatment content and timing, and relate to outcomes. The monograph establishes a linear relationship and direct linkage between the diagnosis and treatment. There is much evidence in orthopaedics that these deficiencies exist and often limit the implementation of the most beneficial treatments. Efforts should be made to improve the effectiveness of the diagnostic process to optimize the entire treatment process. The 5 A's framework can be used as a template for the accumulation of information that can guide the treatment process.

Treatment of Symptomatic Acromioclavicular Joint Instability by a Docking Technique: Clinical Indications, Surgical Technique, and Outcomes.

PURPOSE: To report functional and objective outcomes resulting from surgical treatment of patients with symptomatic type III through V acromioclavicular (AC) joint injury by use of a modification of the anatomic AC joint reconstruction developed by Carofino and Mazzocca. METHODS: The study included all patients treated in 2009-2014 who presented with a history of direct trauma to the shoulder; deformity of the AC joint on clinical examination; radiographic findings that would classify the injury as a Rockwood type III, IV, or V injury; AC joint instability on clinical examination; and self-reported deficits of arm function on initial presentation, in whom a comprehensive and directed nonoperative program failed. The surgical procedure used an allograft with reinforcing internal sutures passed around the coracoid and through anatomically positioned clavicular holes for the coracoclavicular (CC) ligaments, used a docking technique for reconstruction of the superior AC ligaments, and included repair of the native AC ligaments. Outcomes were reported for patients with a minimum follow-up period of 1.5 years. Outcome measurements included dynamic-static stability evaluation and Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) scores. RESULTS: The study included 15 patients with 15 affected shoulders. The postsurgical follow-up period averaged 3 years (range, 1.5-5 years). Postoperatively, one patient showed loss of reduction after a fall. All others showed 2-dimensional radiographic stability and 3-dimensional dynamic clinical stability. Static radiographic measurement of the CC distance at discharge averaged 0.93 cm compared with 2.7 cm on initial examination (P < .0001). Patient-reported outcomes at an average of 3 years' follow-up showed a DASH score of 13 compared with a preoperative DASH score of 51 (P < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms that anatomic CC ligament reconstruction and repair or reconstruction of the AC ligaments help restore arm function as shown by the patient-specific and clinical outcome metrics. These results were achieved by correction of the deformity, which in turn allowed for the obtainment of static and dynamic stability. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV.

Current Practice for the Surgical Treatment of SLAP Lesions: A Systematic Review.

PURPOSE: To analyze current literature reporting surgical treatment of SLAP lesions to examine the consistency of reported surgical details (surgical indications, surgical technique, and postoperative rehabilitation) that are deemed important for best treatment outcomes and to try to establish a consensus regarding treatment. METHODS: A systematic review of papers reporting surgical treatment of a SLAP lesion was performed. Each paper was analyzed for the description of (1) the arthroscopic indications for surgery; (2) surgical aspects including type, location, and number of anchors and sutures; (3) description of criteria for determination of completeness of the repair; and (4) postoperative rehabilitation details. These findings were also analyzed to determine whether a consensus could be developed regarding surgical treatment. RESULTS: Twenty-six papers were included, with 12 focused on isolated SLAP repair and 14 focused on combined SLAP repair with other lesions; 54% did not report indications for surgery. Reporting of the anchor/suture details was not consistent, with 35% reporting some variation of 12:00 placement but 31% not reporting the position of placement; 89% of papers did not report the criteria for determining completeness of the repair; 85% reported general postoperative rehabilitation guidelines, but only 4% reported in-depth details. CONCLUSIONS: This review demonstrated a wide variability in the reported surgical aspects and that a relatively high percentage of papers did not report many of the details. This lack of precision and consistency makes analysis of individual papers and comparison between papers and their outcomes difficult and does not allow a consensus regarding current practice to be developed. These findings may be some of the factors responsible for the variability in treatment outcomes and suggest that efforts could be directed toward consistency in documenting and reporting surgical indications, surgical techniques, surgical endpoints, and efficacious rehabilitation programs. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, systematic review of level III-IV studies.

All Things Clavicle: From Acromioclavicular to Sternoclavicular and All Points in Between.

The clavicle is the most frequently injured bone in the human body. In most cases, fractures that occur in the midshaft of the clavicle can be managed nonsurgically. An increasing number of studies suggest that displaced midshaft clavicle fractures have improved outcomes after surgical management, and equivalent outcomes can be achieved with both plating and intramedullary techniques. Distal clavicle fractures are managed according to the disruption of the coracoclavicular ligaments. Fractures with disruption of the ligaments usually will require fixation, whereas fractures with intact ligaments may be treated with closed management. Multiple techniques of reconstruction appear to yield similar outcomes; however, hook-plating techniques result in the highest complication rates. The evaluation process for acromioclavicular joint injuries is moving from a static two-dimensional evaluation to a three-dimensional evaluation that involves an assessment for scapular dyskinesis. Surgical reconstruction is indicated for patients who exhibit scapular dyskinesis. Anterior sternoclavicular injuries can typically be managed nonsurgically, whereas posterior sternoclavicular dislocations always require urgent surgical management. Newer techniques of ligament reconstruction for sternoclavicular injuries yield improved biomechanical stability.

The role of the scapula in preventing and treating shoulder instability.

The shoulder is a closed-chain mechanism that balances the mobility required by the ranges of motion in normal activities with the stability required to act as a stable ball and socket base for those activities. The scapula plays key roles in the closed-chain mechanism by being mobile enough to place the glenoid in optimal relation to the humerus to facilitate concavity/compression and by being a stable base for coordinated muscle activation to compress the humerus into the glenoid. Scapular dyskinesis alters these roles and is frequently present in many types of glenohumeral instability. It may create or exacerbate the abnormal glenohumeral kinematics in instability. Clinical evaluation methods can demonstrate scapular dyskinesis, and if dyskinesis is present, rehabilitation for the dyskinesis should be included in the non-operative, preoperative, or post-operative treatment. Rehabilitation for scapular dyskinesis can be performed by specific protocols and is more successful in muscle-predominant instabilities such as multidirectional instability and repetitive microtrauma instability. Level of evidence V.

Current Practice for the Diagnosis of a SLAP Lesion: Systematic Review and Physician Survey.

PURPOSE: To evaluate current practice reported in the literature for making a SLAP lesion diagnosis and compare the findings with a survey sent to experienced shoulder surgeons assessing how they make a SLAP diagnosis. METHODS: We performed a systematic review of articles reporting surgical repair of SLAP lesions, documenting the use of 4 diagnostic areas of evaluation: history, clinical examination, imaging, and diagnostic arthroscopy. A survey was distributed electronically to 175 surgeons with expertise in shoulder surgery. The survey listed common components within the 4 diagnostic areas and asked surgeons to indicate components they used in establishing the diagnosis. The 4 diagnostic areas were ranked from 1 to 4 (most to least important). RESULTS: Of the articles, 23% reported using all 4 diagnostic areas, 58% used 3 areas, and 19% used 2 areas or fewer. Thirty-five percent did not report history components, 31% did not report clinical examination elements, 27% did not report imaging findings, and 4% did not report arthroscopic findings. Eight percent reported using a comprehensive history and examination but without describing specific symptoms or tests. The most common components reported in the literature were pain (42%), the active compression test (65%), magnetic resonance imaging/arthrography (65%), and tear/unstable biceps-labral complex (27%). A total of 70 surgeons (40%) responded to the survey. More specific history components, examination maneuvers, and imaging/arthroscopy variants were reported on the survey compared with the literature. Diagnostic arthroscopy and history ranked as the most important for a SLAP diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: The current literature and practice for making the SLAP diagnosis are variable and inconsistent. The SLAP diagnosis appears to be a clinical impression; however, the criteria described within the literature vary among the evaluation areas and differ from the results of the survey. These types of variability may have a significant influence on consistency and accuracy in making the diagnosis of the SLAP injury, developing the subsequent treatment, and maximizing outcomes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, systematic review of Level III and IV studies with cross-sectional survey.

Descriptive analysis of common functional limitations identified by patients with shoulder pain.

CONTEXT: Recent establishment of G-codes by the US government requires therapists to report function limitations at initial evaluation. Limited information exists specific to the most common limitations in patients with shoulder pain. OBJECTIVE: To describe the most commonly expressed shoulder limitations with activities and their severity/level of impairment from a patient's perspective on the initial evaluation. DESIGN: Descriptive. SETTING: Patients reporting pain with overhead activity and seeking medical attention from one orthopedic surgeon were recruited as part of a cohort study. PATIENTS: 176 with shoulder superior labral tear from anterior to posterior (SLAP), subacromial impingement, combined SLAP and rotator cuff, and nonspecific (female = 53, age = 41 ± 13 y; male = 123, age = 41 ± 12 y). INTERVENTIONS: Data were obtained on the initial visit from the Patient-Specific Functional Scale (PSFS) questionnaire. Three researchers extracted meaningful concepts from the PSFS and linked them to the International Classification of Functioning (ICF) categories according to established ICF linking rules. RESULTS: 176 participants yielded 765 meaningful concepts that were linked to the ICF with a 66% agreement between researchers before consensus. There were no differences between diagnoses. Of all patients, 88% reported functional limitations coded into meaningful concepts as represented by 10 ICF codes; 634 (83%) meaningful concepts were linked to the activities and participation domain while 129 (17%) were linked to the body function domain. Only 2 reported functional limitations that were considered nondefinable (nd). The overall average initial impairment score on the PSFS = 4 ± 2.5 out of 10 points. CONCLUSION: Meaningful concepts from the activities and participation domain were most commonly identified as functional limitations and were more prevalent than limitations from the body function domain. This information helps identify some of the most common limitations in patients with shoulder pain that therapists can use to efficiently document patient functional impairment.

Preliminary development of a clinical prediction rule for treatment of patients with suspected SLAP tears.

PURPOSE: To use the clinical prediction rule process to identify patient variables, measured on initial clinical presentation, that would be predictive of failure to achieve satisfactory improvement, while following a rehabilitation program, in the modification of SLAP injury symptoms and dysfunction. METHODS: A cohort of patients received the clinical diagnosis of a SLAP lesion based on specific history and examination findings and/or magnetic resonance imaging. They underwent a physical examination of the kinetic chain and shoulder, including tests for labral injury. Patients followed a standardized physical therapy program emphasizing restoration of demonstrated strength, flexibility, and strength-balance deficits. At 6 weeks' follow-up, patients were re-evaluated and divided into those recommended for surgery (RS) and those not recommended for surgery (NRS). Bivariate logistic regression was performed to identify the best combination of predictive factors. RESULTS: Fifty-eight patients (aged 39 ± 11 years, 45 men) were included. Of these, 31 (53%) were categorized as NRS and 27 (47%) as RS. The presence of a painful arc of motion (odds ratio, 3.95; P = .024) and the presence of increased forward scapular posture (odds ratio, 1.27; P = .094) on the injured side were predictive of being in the RS group. This finding indicates that the odds of being in the RS group increased 4 times when a positive painful arc was present and increased 27% with every 1-cm increase in involved anterior shoulder posture. CONCLUSIONS: A structured rehabilitation program resulted in modification of symptoms and improved function at 6 weeks' follow-up in over half of patients in the study group. On initial evaluation, the presence of a painful arc of overhead motion, indicating loss of normal glenohumeral kinematics, and the presence of forward shoulder posture, indicating an altered scapular position, represent negative predictive factors for success of rehabilitation. Future validation of the model in a larger population is necessary. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II, prospective comparative study.