TNF-α enhances TGF-ß-induced endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition via TGF-ß signal augmentation.

The tumor microenvironment (TME) consists of various components including cancer cells, tumor vessels, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and inflammatory cells. These components interact with each other via various cytokines, which often induce tumor progression. Thus, a greater understanding of TME networks is crucial for the development of novel cancer therapies. Many cancer types express high levels of TGF-ß, which induces endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT), leading to formation of CAFs. Although we previously reported that CAFs derived from EndMT promoted tumor formation, the molecular mechanisms underlying these interactions remain to be elucidated. Furthermore, tumor-infiltrating inflammatory cells secrete various cytokines, including TNF-α. However, the role of TNF-α in TGF-ß-induced EndMT has not been fully elucidated. Therefore, this study examined the effect of TNF-α on TGF-ß-induced EndMT in human endothelial cells (ECs). Various types of human ECs underwent EndMT in response to TGF-ß and TNF-α, which was accompanied by increased and decreased expression of mesenchymal cell and EC markers, respectively. In addition, treatment of ECs with TGF-ß and TNF-α exhibited sustained activation of Smad2/3 signals, which was presumably induced by elevated expression of TGF-ß type I receptor, TGF-ß2, activin A, and integrin αv, suggesting that TNF-α enhanced TGF-ß-induced EndMT by augmenting TGF-ß family signals. Furthermore, oral squamous cell carcinoma-derived cells underwent epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in response to humoral factors produced by TGF-ß and TNF-α-cultured ECs. This EndMT-driven EMT was blocked by inhibiting the action of TGF-ßs. Collectively, our findings suggest that TNF-α enhances TGF-ß-dependent EndMT, which contributes to tumor progression.

Development of a micronucleus test using the EpiAirway™ organotypic human airway model.

BACKGROUND: The use of organotypic human tissue models in genotoxicity has increased as an alternative to animal testing. Genotoxicity is generally examined using a battery of in vitro assays such as Ames and micronucleus (MN) tests that cover gene mutations and structural and numerical chromosome aberrations. At the 7th International Workshop on Genotoxicity Testing, working group members agreed that the skin models have reached an advanced stage of maturity, while further efforts in liver and airway models are needed [Pfuhler et al., Mutat. Res. 850-851 (2020) 503135]. Organotypic human airway model is composed of fully differentiated and functional respiratory epithelium. However, because cell proliferation in organotypic airway models is thought to be less active, assessing their MN-inducing potential is an issue, even in the cytokinesis-blocking approach using cytochalasin B (CB) [Wang et al., Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 62 (2021) 306-318]. Here, we developed a MN test using EpiAirway™ in which epidermal growth factor (EGF) was included as a stimulant of cell division. RESULTS: By incubating EpiAirway™ tissue with medium containing various concentrations of CB, we found that the percentage of binucleated cells (%BNCs) almost plateaued at 3 µg/mL CB for 72 h incubation. Additionally, we confirmed that EGF stimulation with CB incubation produced an additional increase in %BNCs with a peak at 5 ng/mL EGF. Transepithelial electrical resistance measurement and tissue histology revealed that CB incubation caused the reduced barrier integrity and cyst formation in EpiAirway™. Adenylate kinase assay confirmed that the cytotoxicity increased with each day of culture in the CB incubation period with EGF stimulation. These results indicated that chemical treatment should be conducted prior to CB incubation. Under these experimental conditions, it was confirmed that the frequency of micronucleated cells was dose-dependently increased by apical applications of two clastogens, mitomycin C and methyl methanesulfonate, and an aneugen, colchicine, at the subcytotoxic concentrations assessed in %BNCs. CONCLUSIONS: Well-studied genotoxicants demonstrated capability in an organotypic human airway model as a MN test system. For further utilization, investigations of aerosol exposure, repeating exposure protocol, and metabolic activation are required.

TGF-beta and TNF-alpha cooperatively induce mesenchymal transition of lymphatic endothelial cells via activation of Activin signals.

Lymphatic systems play important roles in the maintenance of fluid homeostasis and undergo anatomical and physiological changes during inflammation and aging. While lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) undergo mesenchymal transition in response to transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß), the molecular mechanisms underlying endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) of LECs remain largely unknown. In this study, we examined the effect of TGF-ß2 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), an inflammatory cytokine, on EndMT using human skin-derived lymphatic endothelial cells (HDLECs). TGF-ß2-treated HDLECs showed increased expression of SM22α, a mesenchymal cell marker accompanied by increased cell motility and vascular permeability, suggesting HDLECs to undergo EndMT. Our data also revealed that TNF-α could enhance TGF-ß2-induced EndMT of HDLECs. Furthermore, both cytokines induced the production of Activin A while decreasing the expression of its inhibitory molecule Follistatin, and thus enhancing EndMT. Finally, we demonstrated that human dermal lymphatic vessels underwent EndMT during aging, characterized by double immunostaining for LYVE1 and SM22α. These results suggest that both TGF-ß and TNF-α signals play a central role in EndMT of LECs and could be potential targets for senile edema.

Fibroblast growth factor signals regulate transforming growth factor-ß-induced endothelial-to-myofibroblast transition of tumor endothelial cells via Elk1.

The tumor microenvironment contains various components, including cancer cells, tumor vessels, and cancer-associated fibroblasts, the latter of which are comprised of tumor-promoting myofibroblasts and tumor-suppressing fibroblasts. Multiple lines of evidence indicate that transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) induces the formation of myofibroblasts and other types of mesenchymal (non-myofibroblastic) cells from endothelial cells. Recent reports show that fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) modulates TGF-ß-induced mesenchymal transition of endothelial cells, but the molecular mechanisms behind the signals that control transcriptional networks during the formation of different groups of fibroblasts remain largely unclear. Here, we studied the roles of FGF2 during the regulation of TGF-ß-induced mesenchymal transition of tumor endothelial cells (TECs). We demonstrated that auto/paracrine FGF signals in TECs inhibit TGF-ß-induced endothelial-to-myofibroblast transition (End-MyoT), leading to suppressed formation of contractile myofibroblast cells, but on the other hand can also collaborate with TGF-ß in promoting the formation of active fibroblastic cells which have migratory and proliferative properties. FGF2 modulated TGF-ß-induced formation of myofibroblastic and non-myofibroblastic cells from TECs via transcriptional regulation of various mesenchymal markers and growth factors. Furthermore, we observed that TECs treated with TGF-ß were more competent in promoting in vivo tumor growth than TECs treated with TGF-ß and FGF2. Mechanistically, we showed that Elk1 mediated FGF2-induced inhibition of End-MyoT via inhibition of TGF-ß-induced transcriptional activation of α-smooth muscle actin promoter by myocardin-related transcription factor-A. Our data suggest that TGF-ß and FGF2 oppose and cooperate with each other during the formation of myofibroblastic and non-myofibroblastic cells from TECs, which in turn determines the characteristics of mesenchymal cells in the tumor microenvironment.