Caregiver burden after stroke: a 10-year follow-up study of Polish caregivers for stroke patients.

BACKGROUND: A long-term assessment of stroke outcomes from the perspectives of patients and their caregivers is important for optimising long-term post-stroke care. The extended effects of stroke caregiving, particularly caregiver burden beyond 5 years since stroke, remain to be determined. Hence, this study aimed to determine caregiver burden at 10 years after stroke, compare the burden severity at 10 years with its levels at 5 years and 6 months after stroke, and identify predictors of the burden severity at 10 years post-stroke. METHODS: A longitudinal follow-up study including a group of first-ever stroke patients/informal continuous caregivers pairs was followed for 10 years and interviewed face-to face at their home setting. Caregiver burden was evaluated with the Caregiver Burden Scale. Potential predictors were examined using standardised measures and identified by applying the Classification and Regression Tree. RESULTS: A total of 40 caregiver/patient pairs participated in the study. At 10 years, 47.5% of the caregivers experienced a considerable burden. This was more than after 5 years (17.5%) and comparable to that after 6 months (37.5%), p < 0.003. Longer time spent caregiving, caregivers' weaker sense of coherence, more severe stroke, and caregivers' anxiety were the independent predictors of considerable burden 10 years after stroke. CONCLUSIONS: Caregivers' burden in the late chronic post-stroke phase is a significant problem, as nearly half of the caregivers experience a substantial burden. This problem mainly concerns individuals who spend at least 7 h daily caregiving and have a lower Sense of Coherence. The long-term evaluation of stroke consequences reported by stroke patients and their caregivers can be an important source of information for healthcare professionals in order to optimise the care and support they provide at various stages of life after stroke.

Can a Scientist Be a Young, Attractive Woman? The Stereotype of a Scientist and the Lexical Choices of Women and Men.

The question of the conformance of a researcher's features to the stereotype of a scientist is rarely addressed in the context of scientific research. We decided to examine its significance in two experiments involving women and men in which the persons conducting the experiment had features respectively conforming and not conforming to the stereotype of a scientist. Both experiments were carried out on an interactive model and the dependent variables were length of utterance and lexical choices. We chose to use linguistic material because, as classical research shows, it is particularly susceptible to the influence of social context and features of the interlocutor. To operationalise the dependent variable, we used Ertel's Speech Style Quotients. The results of both experiments were found to be significant for context comparisons but non-significant for gender, which confirms the importance of features of the interlocutor in determining utterance length and lexical choices.

Metacognition and emotion - How accurate perception of own biases relates to positive feelings and hedonic capacity.

Metacognition refers to awareness of one's own cognitive processes, including examining own biases and decision making. Metacognitive self (MCS), defined as accuracy in perception of own biases, is associated with pro-health behaviors and desire for feedback, including negative information. Two studies investigated MCS in relation to emotion and hedonic capacity. First, in a longitudinal study of college students, MCS measure was stable over time, and correlated with feelings of love and joy. In the second study, MCS, mood, and hedonic capacity ratings were collected prior to evaluating stimuli for pleasure from engagement during an fMRI. Higher MCS was associated with greater hedonic capacity and increased signal in cortical areas involved in self-reflection and decision making. Our findings implicate self-awareness of biases as a cognitive process supporting positive emotional state and hedonic capacity. Future studies should explore how MCS relates to changes in mood and vulnerability to mood disorders.

[Future psychologists' attitudes toward lesbians raising children together in the situation of child focused intervention]. / Postawa przyszlych psychologów wobec lesbijek wychowujacych wspólnie dzieci w sytuacji interwencji skoncentrowanej na dziecku.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of paper was to explore the attitudes of Polish psychology students towards lesbian mothers whose children undergo psychological intervention, in an imaginary situation of providing professional support to the child. The authors found 3 types of psychologist behaviour: contact omission (withdrawal from the intervention, mother's partner exclusion), apparent appreciation of mother's partner and authentic appreciation of mother's partner (with women comparable participation). The authors explored an interaction between these attitudes and the support for gay and lesbian rights, the origin of the child (from a previous heterosexual relationship or present, homosexual one) and demographic variables. METHODS: 97 students of psychology were examined at the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, using the custom survey. RESULTS: Respondents were most likely to include mother's partner to intervention, and the least - to avoid contact. Based on cluster analysis we found three types of attitude: unconditional acceptance, conditional acceptance, dependent on whether the child was born due in heterosexual or lesbian relationship and avoidance / rejection. The attitude of participants was associated with the declared support for gay rights, there was no correlation with gender and age. CONCLUSIONS: Due to the significant level of social prejudice against gays and lesbians in Poland, the issue of homosexual parenting and social functioning of gay and lesbians' children should become an area of research and scientific debate. There is a necessity ofthe introduction of this issue to the curricula of higher education and the implementation of formal, systematic training on sexual diversity for the professionals supporting families.

Hope for success as a mediator between Big Five personality traits and achievement goal orientation among high performance and recreational athletes.

The main objective of this study was to determine whether hope for success mediates the relationship between personality and goal orientation in high performance and recreational athletes. The cross-sectional study included 289 high performance and recreational athletes of various sports (age: M = 20.34, SD = 1.86). To examine personality, we used the Big Five IPIP-BFM-20 questionnaire. To assess hope for success, we used the Hope for Success Questionnaire. The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) was employed to examine goal orientation. Hope for success significantly mediates the relationships between conscientiousness, extraversion, emotional stability, intellect, and task goal orientation in sport. Higher levels of these personality traits are related to athletes' higher hope for success, which, in turn, is positively related to their task orientation. Personality traits may underpin the hope for success that develops from childhood. This, in turn, appears to be an important component on which, combined with the positive interaction and support from coaches, a task goal orientation beneficial to sport can be shaped in athletes.

Validation and personality conditionings of the 3 × 2 achievement goal model in sport.

Achievement goal models have been successfully applied in sport. In recent years, a framework that has emerged in this area is the 3 × 2 approach, being a natural evolution of years of research into the issue of achievement goals. Nevertheless, it is essential to further validate the abovementioned approach and explore its psychosocial context. Hence, the purpose of this study was to validate the latest 3 × 2 achievement goal model among high-performance and recreational athletes using the Polish version of the 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire for Sport (3 × 2 AGQ-S), and to determine the relationship between personality traits and achievement goals of athletes. The study included 413 athletes, with M = 20.62 and SD = 2.72. The 3 × 2 AGQ-S was used to assess achievement goals, the Big Five personality traits were assessed using the IPIP-BFM-20 questionnaire. The model of the Polish version of the 3 × 2 AGQ-S achieved a satisfactory fit to the data (CFI = 0.940, TLI = 0.923, RMSEA = 0.086, SRMR = 0.061). Cronbach's alphas for the subscales were: 0.77-0.96. High-performance athletes obtained higher achievement goals in task and self subscales than recreational athletes. Personality traits explained no more than 3% of variance of achievement goals in sport. Research involving the Polish version of the 3 × 2 AGQ-S supports the validity of the 3 × 2 model in sport among high-performance and recreational athletes. Nevertheless, the small relationships between the personality traits and achievement goals prompt searching for other psychosocial determinants of goals in sport.

Lexical indicators of anxiety in schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Anxiety is a dominant emotion in schizophrenia. It is most often diagnosed by questionnaire-based methods. In this study, it was decided to analyse the utterances of patients with schizophrenia for the occurrence of lexical indicators of anxiety, which are a good predictor of experienced anxiety and lie beyond the subject's control. DESIGN: The indicators most frequently described in the literature and considered to be of the most significant diagnostic value were selected: first-person pronouns and verbs; causal expressions and conjunctions; affirmative and negative particles; and dogmatic expressions. It was assumed that more of these would appear in the utterances of people with schizophrenia than in the utterances of healthy subjects. METHODS: The study was conducted on 130 patients with paranoid schizophrenia and 130 healthy subjects. They were asked to describe five pictures. RESULTS: In all verbal indicators of anxiety (except for negative particles) patients with positive schizophrenia attained the highest values, differing significantly from the results for the control groups. CONCLUSION: This result is consistent with the subject literature, which emphasizes the high level of anxiety in schizophrenia, especially in its first phase, when the generative symptoms of the illness predominate.

Styles of coping with stress of cancer in patients treated with radiotherapy and expectations towards medical staff - Practical implications.

BACKGROUND: It is essential to adjust oncological treatment to medical procedures but also to the expectations of patients themselves. Expectations of patients may depend on the way of coping with the stress of cancer. Many researchers have dealt with this issue. However, it is difficult to find studies concerning relations between the styles of coping and expectations of patients towards medical staff. AIM: To demonstrate the relationship between the style of coping with stress of cancer shown by patients undergoing radiotherapy at the Greater Poland Cancer Centre and the nature of their expectations towards the medical staff, and to present work of the Clinical Psychology Unit in response to the expectations of patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Questionnaire survey. The respondents filled in a questionnaire consisting of a patient request form (PRF), the mini-mental adjustment to cancer scale (Mini-MAC), and personal data. Obtained results were subjected to statistical analysis. RESULTS: SIGNIFICANT ASSOCIATIONS: the expectation to have the disease explained is associated with anxious preoccupation, fighting spirit, helplessness-hopelessness; the expectation of emotional support is associated with anxious preoccupation and helplessness-hopelessness; and the expectation of information on examinations and treatment is associated with anxious preoccupation and helplessness-hopelessness. CONCLUSIONS: Expectations of patients undergoing radiotherapy in the Greater Poland Cancer Centre towards the medical staff depend on their styles of coping with the stress of cancer.

Psychometric functioning, measurement invariance, and external associations of the Relationship Assessment Scale in a sample of Polish Adults.

The current article reports data from three Polish samples to examine the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) with respect to its unidimensionality, invariance across countries, gender, formal and informal relationships, degree of precision (or information) across latent levels of relationship satisfaction, and the functioning of individual items. The analyses of the data from the reference sample (n = 733) confirmed a clear 1-factor structure of the RAS-PL and good internal consistency. Configural, metric, and scalar invariance for countries (Poland, Hungary, USA), gender (women and men) and relationship types (formal and informal relationships) were achieved. Item Response Theory Analysis (IRT) suggested that the RAS-PL assesses relationship satisfaction most reliably at low to average levels. Analyses of the data from validation samples (n = 203 and n = 209) confirmed the convergent and divergent validity by weak, medium, and large correlations of the RAS-PL with measures of other theoretically related constructs. Concurrent criterion validity was demonstrated by a strong positive correlation between the RAS-PL and the intent to continue the current relationship. This investigation provides considerable psychometric information about the items and scale of the RAS-PL.

Psychometric properties of the Polish version of the Multiple Sclerosis Self-Management Scale - Revised.

PURPOSE: The main aim of this study was to analyse the psychometric properties of the Polish version of the Multiple Sclerosis Self-Management-Revised Scale. METHODS: A total of 663 patients with multiple sclerosis were included in this study. The Polish version of the Multiple Sclerosis Self-Management-Revised Scale, The General Self-Efficacy Scale, Multiple Sclerosis Impact Scale-29, and Expanded Disability Status Scale were used. Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega coefficients were calculated to assess the Polish version of the scale's reliability. The reliability of the scale's test items was assessed using an information function with the multidimensional graded response model. Confirmatory factor and principal component analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Cronbach's α and McDonald's ω were obtained (α = 0.896, ω = 0.909). Correlations between the scores of the Polish version of the Multiple Sclerosis Self-Management-Revised Scale and the General Self-Efficacy Scale (r = 0.34; p < 0.001) and the neurological assessment of patients by a physician (r = -0.23; p < 0.001) were significant. The original factor structure of the scale was not confirmed (Chi2(242) = 1480; p < .001; CFI = 0.829; TLI = .805; RMSEA = 0.088, 90% CI = [0.084-0.092]; SRMR = 0.079). CONCLUSIONS: Using only the total score of the Multiple Sclerosis Self-Management-Revised Scale is recommended for Polish patients. The scale's factor structure requires further study.Implications for rehabilitationThe Polish version of the Multiple Sclerosis Self-Management-Revised Scale was reliable and valid when used in adult multiple sclerosis patients.At present, we recommend using only the total score of the Multiple Sclerosis Self-Management-Revised Scale. Further research is needed to distinguish the detailed subscales of the Polish version of the tool.The Polish version of the Multiple Sclerosis Self-Management-Revised Scale can be used in clinical practice and for research purposes to assess the general level of self-management in Polish-speaking multiple sclerosis patients in Poland.

Validation of Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2) among Polish athletes and the relationship between anxiety and goal orientation in sport.

This study aims to assess the validity and reliability of the Polish version of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2, as well as to determine the relationship between anxiety and goal orientation among high-performance and recreational athletes. A total of 519 athletes aged M = 22.83 (SD = 4.92) participated in the study, including 266 males and 253 females. 242 athletes trained professionally and 277 recreationally. The Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2) was used to assess anxiety levels, while the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) enabled to assess athletes' goal orientation. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a good fit of the model to the data for the Polish version of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (CFI = 0.945, RMSEA = 0.072). The models obtained during analysis of high-performance and recreational athletes, women and men, also presented a satisfactory fit to the data (CFI 0.932-0.946). The configural, metric, scalar and strict measurement invariances were demonstrated for high-performance and recreational athletes as well as among women and men. High internal consistency coefficients (alpha 0.81-0.91) and a high test-retest reliability indexes were reported (ICC 0.74-0.87). Women presented higher level of competitive anxiety than men. A positive relationship between competitive anxiety and athletes' ego orientation was also presented. This relationship concerned particularly women practicing sport recreationally.

Development and Psychometric Properties of the Caregiver Burden Scale in Polish Caregivers of Stroke Patients.

Purpose: Most stroke patients require long-term care of their family members. Excessive care burden entails several negative consequences; therefore, the severity of the burden should be periodically assessed. For this purpose, valid multidimensional measures are needed. Our study, which is a part of a larger research project, aims to translate and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Polish Caregiver Burden Scale (CBS) in relation to construct validity and internal consistency in caregivers of the patients after stroke. Patients and Methods: The sample of this cross-sectional observational study consisted of 366 informal caregivers to consecutive first-ever stroke survivors. The five-factor Polish CBS and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) were administered during the home visits at three to six months after patients' hospitalisation. Exploratory (EFA), confirmatory (CFA) factor analyses and a net analysis were performed to investigate the internal structure and a factorial construct validity of the CBS. Correlation analyses between the CBS and the HADS were carried out to examine convergent validity. Cronbach's alpha and item-total correlation were applied to assess internal consistency. Results: Three out of five factors identified by EFA were similar to the original indices of the CBS, while the remaining two deviated from the original structure of the CBS. The CFA five-factor model represented an acceptable fit (confirmatory fit index, CFI = 0.96, root mean square error, RMSEA = 0.04) but only after a modification. All subscale scores of the CBS were positively correlated with the HADS, supporting the convergent validity. Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the overall scale (0.92) and all subscales (0.72-0.87) except one (0.69) and item-total correlation results indicated good internal consistency. Conclusion: The Polish version of the CBS showed acceptable internal consistency and good convergent validity. Factorial validity and structural integrity were partially supported. The interrelationships between the CBS subdomains, their partial mutual contamination, and the scale's non-orthogonal structure should be considered when interpreting the results of further studies using this version of the scale.

Goal Orientation and Physical Activity: Psychometric Properties of the Polish Version of the Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM).

Motivational factors are among the most important determinants of undertaking and participating in physical activity. An adequate measurement of motivation and the assessment of its initial characteristics form the basis for possible further practical interventions of a compensatory or promotional nature. Considering the above, the main aim of this study was to assess the psychometric properties of the Polish version of the Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM), and to determine the association between the task and the ego orientations and selected components of physical activity, i.e., frequency of undertaking, declared time per session and time spent on physical activity. In addition to the typical indices of psychometric assessment, an analysis of the reliability of test items by applying the item response theory (IRT) model was also presented. The study included 318 individuals (173 females, 145 males), aged 21 years on average, undertaking recreational physical activity. The GOEM scale by Petherick and Markland (2008) was used. The model of the Polish version of the GOEM scale fitted the empirical data well (CFI = 0.955). Satisfactory reliability indices were also obtained (task subscale: alpha = 0.83, omega = 0.83; ego subscale: alpha = 0.86, omega = 0.86). Reliability, as assessed by the test-retest method, was ICC = 0.80 for the task subscale and ICC = 0.87 for the ego subscale. The IRT analysis showed that the ego subscale was more precise in the middle level of the trait, while the task subscale provided more information in the low and middle level of the trait and relatively little information in the high level of the trait. The positive associations of the task subscale with the frequency of physical activity and the time spent in a single exercise session were also noted.

Correlation between Handgrip Strength and Depression in Older Adults-A Systematic Review and a Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Depression remains an important health problem among older adults and it may be correlated with the deterioration of physical fitness, whose chief indicator is hand grip strength (HGS). The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between depression and HGS among older populations using the available literature. METHODS: PubMed, Web of Science and Science Direct databases were searched. The inclusion criteria were as follows: written in English and published after 2009, subject age: ≥60 years, HGS measured using a hand dynamometer, assessment of the depressive symptoms using a validated tool. The following articles were excluded: studies conducted among institutionalized subjects and/or populations with a specific disease. RESULTS: The total combined effect of 33 results presented in 16 studies included in the meta-analysis, converted to the correlation coefficient, was OEr = -0.148 (SE = 0.030, 95%CI: -0.206--0.091), indicating a weak, negative correlation between HGS and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The review of the literature and the meta-analysis demonstrated a relationship between low muscle strength and intensified depressive symptoms in older populations. Bearing in mind that depression is often unrecognized or underdiagnosed among older patients, lowered muscle strength should be an important sign for physicians and an incentive to screen them for depression.

Manual praxis and language-production networks, and their links to handedness.

While Liepmann was one of the first researchers to consider a relationship between skilled manual actions (praxis) and language for tasks performed "freely from memory", his primary focus was on the relations between the organization of praxis and left-hemisphere dominance. Subsequent attempts to apply his apraxia model to all cases he studied - including his first patient, a "non-pure right-hander" treated as an exception - left the praxis-handedness issue unresolved. Modern neuropsychological and recent neuroimaging evidence either showed closer associations of praxis and language, than between handedness and any of these two functions, or focused on their dissociations. Yet, present-day developments in neuroimaging and statistics allow us to overcome the limitations of the earlier work on praxis-language-handedness links, and to better quantify their interrelationships. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we studied tool use pantomimes and subvocal word generation in 125 participants, including righthanders (NRH = 52), ambidextrous individuals (mixedhanders; NMH = 31), and lefthanders (NLH = 42). Laterality indices were calculated both in two critical cytoarchitectonic maps, and 180 multi-modal parcellations of the human cerebral cortex, using voxel count and signal intensity, and the most relevant regions of interest and their networks were further analyzed. We found that atypical organization of praxis was present in all handedness groups (RH = 25.0%, MH = 22.6%; LH = 45.2%), and was about two and a half times as common as atypical organization of language (RH = 3.8%; MH = 6.5%; LH = 26.2%), contingent on ROI selection/LI-calculation method. Despite strong associations of praxis and language, regardless of handedness and typicality, dissociations of atypically represented praxis from typical left-lateralized language were common (~20% of cases), whereas the inverse dissociations of atypically represented language from typical left-lateralized praxis were very rare (in ~2.5% of all cases). The consequences of the existence of such different phenotypes for theoretical accounts of manual praxis, and its links to language and handedness are modeled and discussed.

Assessment of selected nutrient intake by Polish preschool children compared to dietary recommendations: a meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: In recent years a steady increase in the number of obese people has been observed worldwide. This problem is also increasingly applicable to children and adolescents. In this study, we conducted a meta-analysis of studies carried out in Poland over ten years (2005-2015) which analysed the diet of preschool children and assessed how significantly it affects the prevention of diet-dependent disease. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Two of the researchers independently performed a systematic search of Medline, Embase, Google Scholar, and the Polish Medical Bibliography to find studies published between 2005 and 2015. The variance of the means of differences between selected factors in relation to dietary guidelines and standards for preschool children was estimated by summing the individual variances of means. The means of differences between selected factors across the studies were pooled using random-effects model meta-analysis. RESULTS: The analysis included a total of 2095 children. Mean protein content in the diet of children studied is 111% higher than indicated in dietary recommendations for this age group; mean consumption of carbohydrates in the study group is 24% higher than recommended. In moderately high calorie diets, analysis showed that the recommended norm is exceeded by 47%, CE 0.77, p < 0.001. CONCLUSIONS: Nutrient intake is not compliant with recommendations for this age group and could not only inhibit physical development, but also increase the risk of diet-dependent diseases.

The Measurement of Goal Orientation in Sport: Psychometric Properties of the Polish Version of the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ).

The main aim of the study is a comprehensive assessment of psychometric properties of the Polish version of Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) in sport. Apart from standard psychometric evaluation, the paper presents an analysis of item reliability through the use of Item Response Theory, as well as the analysis of relationships between sport type, level of participation, gender and goal orientation level. The study covered 412 people aged M = 23.46 (SD = 5.40). The Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ), the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-28) were used. High reliability of POSQ ego subscale (α = 0.89, ω = 0.89) and POSQ task subscale (α = 0.90, ω = 0.91) were noted. The test-retest correlations at the two-week interval were ICC = 0.91 for ego subscale, and ICC = 0.71 for task subscale, respectively. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a relatively good fit of the two-factor model to the data (CFI = 0.94). Relationships between the goal orientation measured by the POSQ questionnaire and motivational traits measured by TEOSQ and SMS-28 were obtained. It was also shown that high-performance athletes had higher scores on the ego factor than recreational athletes. Moreover, men had higher scores on the ego factor than women. The Perception of Success Questionnaire (Polish version) is characterized by satisfactory psychometric properties and can be used for scientific research and diagnosis.

Psychometric Properties of the Polish Version of Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ).

The main aim of the study was to assess the psychometric properties of the Polish version of the task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire (TEOSQ). The study covered 651 athletes aged 19.2 years, SD (Standard deviation) = 2.21. The task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire (TEOSQ) and sport motivation scale (SMS-28) were used. Cronbach's Alpha for the ego subscale was 0.84, and for the task subscale 0.81 (McDonald's omega was 0.84, 0.82 respectively). The reliability of the test-retest with two weeks interval was ICC (Intraclass correlation coefficient) = 0.86 for ego and ICC = 0.86 for task. Initially, the two-factor model was not fully fitted (CFI (Comparative fit index) = 0.84), however the model with correlated errors for selected test items was well fitted to data (CFI = 0.95). Statistically significant, positive correlations between the task orientation and the intrinsic motivation components were obtained. Additionally, individual athletes had higher scores on the ego factor and lower scores on the task factor than the team athletes. These effects were moderated by the level of participation and occurred among high-performance athletes. Due to satisfactory reliability and validity indicators the Polish version of the task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire (TEOSQ) can be used both for scientific research and in the individual diagnostics of athletes.

Becoming Aware of One's Own Biases in Emerging Adulthood-A Longitudinal Study. Metacognitive Approach.

The current longitudinal developmental study was designed to determine whether awareness of one's own biases (the metacognitive self, MCS) emerges and develops during the developmental period known as emerging adulthood. To this end, we followed almost 400 undergraduate university students (18-23 years) over the first three years of their studies, capturing data at five time points. We observed a growth in MCS that we explain in terms of the cognitive and motivational processes characteristic of emerging adulthood. We also observed group differences in MCS development. Students who performed better on the MCS scale at the very beginning of the study tended to show a greater increase in the MCS than those who scored poorly. Emerging adulthood appears to be a very important period with respect to individual differences in becoming aware of one's own biases.

The accuracy of lung auscultation in the practice of physicians and medical students.

BACKGROUND: Auscultation is one of the first examinations that a patient is subjected to in a GP's office, especially in relation to diseases of the respiratory system. However it is a highly subjective process and depends on the physician's ability to interpret the sounds as determined by his/her psychoacoustical characteristics. Here, we present a cross-sectional assessment of the skills of physicians of different specializations and medical students in the classification of respiratory sounds in children. METHODS AND FINDINGS: 185 participants representing different medical specializations took part in the experiment. The experiment comprised 24 respiratory system auscultation sounds. The participants were tasked with listening to, and matching the sounds with provided descriptions of specific sound classes. The results revealed difficulties in both the recognition and description of respiratory sounds. The pulmonologist group was found to perform significantly better than other groups in terms of number of correct answers. We also found that performance significantly improved when similar sound classes were grouped together into wider, more general classes. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm that ambiguous identification and interpretation of sounds in auscultation is a generic issue which should not be neglected as it can potentially lead to inaccurate diagnosis and mistreatment. Our results lend further support to the already widespread acknowledgment of the need to standardize the nomenclature of auscultation sounds (according to European Respiratory Society, International Lung Sounds Association and American Thoracic Society). In particular, our findings point towards important educational challenges in both theory (nomenclature) and practice (training).