Income differences in partial life expectancy between ages 35 and 64 from 1988 to 2017: the contribution of living arrangements.

BACKGROUND: Socioeconomic differences in mortality among the working-age population have increased in several high-income countries. The aim of this study was to assess whether changes in the living arrangement composition of income groups have contributed to changing income differences in life expectancy during the past 30 years. METHODS: We used Finnish register data covering the total population to calculate partial life expectancies between ages 35 and 64 by income quartile in 1988-2017. The contribution of living arrangements to these differences was assessed by direct standardization. Decomposition methods were used to determine the extent of life expectancy differences due to external (accidental, violent and alcohol-related) causes of death. RESULTS: The life expectancy gap between the highest and lowest income quartile increased until 2003-07, but decreased thereafter. The contribution of living arrangements to these differences remained mostly stable: 36-39% among men and 15-23% among women. Those living without children consistently showed the greatest life expectancy differences by income. External causes of death significantly contributed to income differences in life expectancy. CONCLUSIONS: The living arrangement composition of income groups explained part of the differences in life expectancy, but not their changes. Our results on the contribution of external causes of death imply that both the persistent income gradient in mortality as well as the mortality disparities by living arrangements are at least partially related to similar selection or causal mechanisms.

Occupational Class Differences in Emotional Exhaustion Among Municipal Employees - The Role of Employment Sector and Psychosocial Working Conditions.

Studies examining occupational class differences in burnout symptoms across employment sectors are scarce. The aim of this study was to examine whether occupational class is associated with emotional exhaustion, and whether there are differences in the examined associations between employment sectors. A further aim was to examine to which extent psychosocial working conditions may explain these associations. Survey data were collected in 2017 among 19-39-year-old employees of the City of Helsinki (4630 women and 1267 men, response rate 51.5%). Occupational class included four classes: 1. manuals, 2. routine non-manuals, 3. semi-professionals, 4. managers and professionals. Employment sector was classified into three groups: 1. health and social care, 2. education and 3. 'other'. Linear regression analysis and IBM SPSS 25 statistical program were used. The analytical sample included 4883 participants. The highest occupational class, i.e. managers and professionals, reported the highest emotional exhaustion. In terms of the sector, those working in education had the highest scores of emotional exhaustion. The associations between occupational class and emotional exhaustion differed somewhat between the sectors. Adjustment for job demands attenuated the differences in emotional exhaustion between occupational classes, whereas adjustment for job control and job strain widened the differences. Attention should be paid to occupations with excess mental demands, and to employees in the education sector, who showed the highest risk of emotional exhaustion.