Abnormal Cytokines in Trauma Patients Explained by Obesity, Musculoskeletal Disease, Smoking, and Lung Disease.

INTRODUCTION: Low-grade inflammation observed through abnormal plasma cytokine levels has been associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It is not clear whether PTSD independently causes the inflammation or if it is mainly through co-occurring somatic factors such as smoking and obesity. We wanted to explore the effects of biopsychosocial factors on cytokine levels in a clinical setting. METHODS: The sample consisted of 51 patients with PTSD, 58 trauma patients without PTSD, and 40 matched controls. We selected cytokines and relevant risk factors for systemic inflammation through pairwise correlations. Then, we used linear regression to analyze the individual and combined effects of these on the (Log10) cytokines, particularly estimating the effect of PTSD adjusted for other factors. RESULTS: Higher age, female gender, cigarette smoking, presence of lung and musculoskeletal disease, use of antipsychotic medication, and higher BMI were correlated with higher levels of interleukins IL-1RA, IL-2RA, and IL-6. In the adjusted regression analysis, higher BMI was associated with increased IL-1RA (B = 0.06, p < 0.01), IL-2RA (B = 0.01, p < 0.01), and IL-6 (B = 0.01, p = 0.03). Presence of musculoskeletal disease was associated with increased IL-1RA (B = 0.72, p < 0.01) and IL-6 (B = 0.16, p = 0.01), and decreased IL-2RA (B = -0.09, p < 0.01). Cigarette smoking (B = 0.16, p = 0.01) and presence of lung disease (B = 0.14, p = 0.02) were associated with increased IL-6. PTSD diagnosis was associated with decreased IL-2RA (B = -0.06, p = 0.04). DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: Altered cytokine levels in distressed trauma-affected individuals are probably mostly through co-occurring risk factors and not PTSD diagnosis. Increased BMI and musculoskeletal (pain) disease may be particularly strong risk factors and should be addressed.

Quality of life and its association with psychiatric disorders in outpatients with trauma history in a tertiary hospital in Kathmandu, Nepal: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Quality of life is an important indicator of health and has multiple dimensions. It is adversely affected in patients with trauma history, and psychiatric disorders play an important role therein. Studies in trauma-affected populations focus mainly on the development of psychiatric disorders. Our study explored various aspects of quality of life in trauma patients in a clinical setting, mainly focusing on the association of psychiatric disorders on various domains of quality of life. METHODS: One hundred patients seeking help at the psychiatry outpatient of a tertiary hospital in Kathmandu, Nepal, and with history of trauma were interviewed using the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview version 2.1 for trauma categorization. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms were assessed using the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-Civilian Version; while the level of anxiety and depression symptoms was assessed using the 25-item Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25. Quality of life was assessed using the World Health Organization Quality Of Life-Brief Version measure. Information on sociodemographic and trauma-related variables was collected using a semi-structured interview schedule. The associations between psychiatric disorders and quality of life domains were explored using bivariate analyses followed by multiple regressions. RESULTS: The mean scores (standard deviations) for overall quality of life and health status perception were 2.79 (.87) and 2.35 (1.11), respectively. The mean scores for the physical, psychological, social and environmental domains were 12.31 (2.96), 11.46 (2.84), 12.79 (2.89), and 13.36 (1.79), respectively. Natural disaster was the only trauma variable significantly associated with overall quality of life, but not with other domains. Anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder were all significantly associated with various quality of life domains, where anxiety had the greatest number of associations. CONCLUSION: Quality of life, overall and across domains, was affected in various ways based on the presence of psychiatric disorders such as anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in patients with trauma. Our findings therefore emphasize the need to address these disorders in a systematic way to improve the patients' quality of life.

Traditional Healers and Mental Health in Nepal: A Scoping Review.

Despite extensive ethnographic and qualitative research on traditional healers in Nepal, the role of traditional healers in relation to mental health has not been synthesized. We focused on the following clinically based research question, "What are the processes by which Nepali traditional healers address mental well-being?" We adopted a scoping review methodology to maximize the available literature base and conducted a modified thematic analysis rooted in grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology. We searched five databases using terms related to traditional healers and mental health. We contacted key authors and reviewed references for additional literature. Our scoping review yielded 86 eligible studies, 65 of which relied solely on classical qualitative study designs. The reviewed literature suggests that traditional healers use a wide range of interventions that utilize magico-religious explanatory models to invoke symbolic transference, manipulation of local illness narratives, roles, and relationships, cognitive restructuring, meaning-making, and catharsis. Traditional healers' perceived impact appears greatest for mild to moderate forms of psychological distress. However, the methodological and sample heterogeneity preclude uniform conclusions about traditional healing. Further research should employ methods which are both empirically sound and culturally adapted to explore the role of traditional healers in mental health.

Reassessing the Mental Health Treatment Gap: What Happens if We Include the Impact of Traditional Healing on Mental Illness?

In this Fresh Focus, we reassess what the mental health treatment gap may mean if we consider the role of traditional healing. Based on systematic reviews, patients can use traditional healers and qualitatively report improvement from general psychological distress and symptom reduction for common mental disorders. Given these clinical implications, some high-income countries have scaled up research into traditional healing practices, while at the same time in low-and middle-income countries, where the use of traditional healers is nearly ubiquitous, considerably less research funding has studied or capitalized on this phenomena. The World Health Organization 2003-2020 Mental Health Action Plan called for government health programs to include traditional and faith healers as treatment resources to combat the low- and middle-income country treatment gap. Reflection on the work which emerged during the course of this Mental Health Action Plan revealed areas for improvement. As we embark on the next Mental Health Action Plan, we offer lessons-learned for exploring potential relationships and collaborations between traditional healing and biomedicine.

Variations in psychiatric morbidity between traumatized Norwegian, refugees and other immigrant patients in Oslo.

Background: There is a lack of clinical studies that focus on different psychiatric disorders after trauma and the relationship with migration status.Purpose: To examine differences in psychiatric morbidity in traumatized patients referred to psychiatric treatment in Southern Oslo.Materials and methods: Hundred and ten patients with trauma background attending an outpatient clinic in Southern Oslo were studied. Forty-four of the participants (40%) were ethnic Norwegians, 25 (22.7%) had refugee background and 41 (37.3%) were first- or second-generation immigrants without refugee background. Thorough diagnostic assessment was done by experienced psychiatrists through several structured clinical interviews and self-report questionnaires.Results: Ninety-eight patients (89%) were diagnosed with at least one Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR) disorder. There was a clear difference in the presentation of certain psychiatric disorders between the groups. Ethnic Norwegian patients were more likely to have anxiety disorders: agoraphobia, social phobia and panic disorder than non-refugee immigrant patients. They also had higher rates of alcohol abuse/dependence. Somatoform pain disorder was more common in both the refugee and other-immigrant groups than among the ethnic Norwegian patients. The refugee patients had significantly more major depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and both co-occurring.Conclusion: Trauma is frequently associated with depression, anxiety disorders, somatoform pain disorder and PTSD in a clinical population. The clinical presentation and comorbidity of these disorders seem to vary significantly between traumatized patients with Norwegian, refugee and non-refugee immigrant backgrounds. After a major trauma, refugees may be at greater risk for both PTSD and depression than other immigrants and the native population.

Satisfaction in the Soul: Common Factors Theory Applied to Traditional Healers in Rural Nepal.

To explore the relationship between traditional healers and conventional psychotherapy, we conducted a combined ethnographic study and structured observational rating of healers in the middle hill region of central Nepal. We conducted in-depth interviews and ethnographic observations of healing with 84 participants comprising 29 traditional healers and 55 other community members. Overall, our observations and participant responses yielded a range of interventions that improved health through belief, satisfaction in the soul, social support, transference, and symbolic narration. The findings from our overall ethnography suggest that healers offer a platform for their patients to accept a disease state, cope with it, and to experience palliation of distress. We additionally focused on one participant who saw multiple healers for a case study, during which we rated healing behavior using an observational measure of empathy, emotional validation, and therapeutic alliance. Using this measure, healers who were perceived as successful, scored high on alliance, empathy, promoting expectations of recovery, and use of cultural models of distress. The results of our structured observation suggest healers draw upon processes also observed in psychotherapy. Further research is needed to explore if these practices can be generalized to healers in other parts of Nepal and other settings. [spirituality, mental health, ethnopsychology, shamanism, mind-body relations].

Performance of Distress Thermometer: A Study among Cancer Patients.

BACKGROUND: The Distress Thermometer accompanied with Problems List is a commonly used screening tool for psychosocial distress. However, it's cut-off score, performance and risk factors for psychosocial distress varies among studies. This is the first study conducted in Nepal to investigate the Distress Thermometer's screening properties, its optimal cut-off score and evaluating the prevalence of psychosocial distress and its risk factors. METHODS: This cross-sectional study enrolled 162 heterogeneous cancer patients. The English form of the Distress Thermometer was translated to Nepali using a forward and backward translation method. Questionnaires including socio-demographic, clinical characteristics, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and Distress Thermometer accompanied with Problems List were filled. Receiver Operating Characteristic analysis of distress thermometer scores was evaluated against Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-Total (≥15). An Area Under the Curve, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value were calculated at each Distress Thermometer cut-off score. RESULTS: Receiver Operating Characteristic analysis showed an excellent discriminating performance (Area Under the Curve =87.4%). A cut-off score of 4 on Distress Thermometer was established and it yielded sensitivity (88.9%), specificity (71.1%), positive predictive value (75.4%) and negative predictive value (86.5%) respectively. Furthermore, 55.6% of participants were distressed and emotional problems (odd ratio = 28.00), practical problems (odd ratio = 12.152) and physical problems (odd ratio = 2.397) were found to be significant risk factors for PD. CONCLUSIONS: PD is a global burden in cancer patients. The DT with a cut-off score of 4 accompanied with PL is valid instrument for screening PD in Nepali cancer patients. PL identified the problems that causes of PD.

Challenges and priorities for suicide prevention in Southeast Asia: Insights from the Partnerships for Life regional workshop on suicide prevention.

Compared to the West, suicide prevention in the Southeast Asian (SEA) region is challenging due to resource constraints, a relatively greater contribution of social compared to psychological factors, and low levels of general awareness coupled with high stigma around suicide and mental illness. Collaboration and knowledge sharing are essential to circumvent these challenges. The Partnerships for Life (PfL) initiative of the International Association of Suicide Prevention aims to enhance knowledge sharing, foster collaboration between nations, and support the development and implementation of evidence-informed approaches to suicide prevention. In February 2024, the SEA region of the PfL conducted the first regional workshop on suicide prevention, in which representatives from 10 out of 12 SEA nations participated. In this paper, we outline the key priorities, challenges, strengths, and opportunities for suicide prevention in the region with a view to inform resource-effective suicide prevention strategies that have optimal utility and uptake.

Distress Thermometer Score Is Useful For Predicting Suicidal Ideation in Patients With Cancer.

PURPOSE: Suicidal ideation (SI) and depressive symptoms are common in patients with cancer. A Distress Thermometer (DT) is an effective tool to screen depression and anxiety in such cohorts. We investigated the value of the DT for predicting SI and the prevalence and associated risk factors of SI in the study population. METHODS: This cross-sectional study enrolled a total of 162 heterogeneous patients with cancer. Information regarding sociodemographic and clinical characteristics, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, DT score, and the past month SI were collected. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed to find accuracy and the optimal cutoff score for predicting risk of SI. The significance of difference between DT scores was obtained using the median independence test. Likelihood of risk was analyzed through odds ratio. RESULTS: DT possesses good overall accuracy (area under the ROC curve = 0.797) for predicting SI in patients with cancer. The DT had a sensitivity of 0.929 and a specificity of 0.522 with a cutoff score of ≥4. The patients with SI had significantly higher DT scores than the patients without SI (7 [5,8] v 3 [1,6]; P < .001). The 1-month prevalence of SI was 17.3%. Depression, anxiety, and psychological distress were the predictive factors of SI. CONCLUSION: SI is a global issue in patients with cancer. The DT scores may be a rapid predicting tool for identifying SI in patients with cancer. Higher DT scores and patients with psychosocial problems need to be routinely screened for SI, which may help to prevent suicidal risk.

Association of pro-inflammatory cytokines with trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder visiting a tertiary care hospital in Kathmandu.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental disorder that can occur after trauma. Although inflammatory markers such as cytokines are found altered in trauma and PTSD, there is no consensus regarding which can be considered as biomarkers. Studies from South Asia region is also rare. We studied cytokines among trauma affected patients and matched healthy controls. Fifty patients (cases) with trauma, visiting the University hospital in Kathmandu and thirty-nine healthy controls were selected, and the levels of cytokines were determined using a Luminex IS 200. We compared the levels of the cytokines in thirty-four age and gender matched pairs of case and control among three groups: healthy volunteers, cases diagnosed as PTSD, and cases without PTSD. Among the 34 pair-matched cases and controls, IL-6 was significantly higher in both PTSD positive cases [2.43 (0.00-14.54) pg/ml; p = 0.004] and PTSD negative cases [3.00 (0.92-3.86) pg/ml; p = 0.005], than in controls [0.39 (0.00-11.38) pg/ml]. IL-1ß was significantly higher in PTSD positive cases [0.17 (0.00-5.27) pg/ml; p = 0.011] than in controls 0.00 (0.00-0.12) pg/ml. Other cytokines did not show significant differences. IL-6 was higher in both the trauma affected groups and IL-1ß was higher in the trauma affected group with PTSD when compared to healthy controls. This supports the immune system activation hypothesis after trauma.

Association of childhood trauma, and resilience, with quality of life in patients seeking treatment at a psychiatry outpatient: A cross-sectional study from Nepal.

Quality of life is defined by the World Health Organization as "Individuals' perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns". It is a comprehensive measure of health outcome after trauma. Childhood maltreatment is a determinant of poor mental health and quality of life. Resilience, however, is supposed to be protective. Our aim is to examine childhood trauma and resilience in patients visiting psychiatry outpatient and investigate their relations with quality of life. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted with a hundred patients with trauma and visiting psychiatry outpatient. Standardized tools were applied to explore childhood trauma, resilience, quality of life and clinical diagnoses and trauma categorization. Sociodemographic and relevant clinical information were obtained with a structured proforma. Bivariate followed by multivariate logistic regressions were conducted to explore the relation between childhood trauma, resilience, and quality of life. Poor quality of life was reported in almost one third of the patients. Upper socioeconomic status, emotional neglect during childhood, current depression and low resilience were the determinants of poor quality of life in bivariate analysis. Final models revealed that emotional neglect during childhood and low resilience had independent associations with poor quality of life. Efforts should be made to minimize childhood maltreatment in general; and explore strategies to build resilience suited to the cultural context to improve quality of life.

Traditional and biomedical care pathways for mental well-being in rural Nepal.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing access to mental health services in biomedical settings (e.g., primary care and specialty clinics) in low- and middle-income countries. Traditional healing continues to be widely available and used in these settings as well. Our goal was to explore how the general public, traditional healers, and biomedical clinicians perceive the different types of services and make decisions regarding using one or both types of care. METHODS: We conducted in-depth interviews using a pilot tested semi-structured protocol around the subjects of belief, traditional healers, and seeking care. We conducted 124 interviews comprising 40 traditional healers, 79 general community members, and five physicians. We then performed qualitative analyses according to a grounded theoretical approach. RESULTS: A majority of the participants endorsed belief in both supernatural and medical causes of illness and sought care exclusively from healers, medical practitioners, and/or both. Our findings also revealed several pathways and barriers to care that were contingent upon patient-, traditional healer-, and medical practitioner-specific attitudes. Notably, a subset of community members duplicated care across multiple, equally-qualified medical providers before seeing a traditional healer and vice versa. In view of this, the majority of our participants stressed the importance of an efficient, medically plural society. Though participants desired a more collaborative model, no consistent proposal emerged on how to bridge traditional and biomedical practices. Instead, participants offered suggestions which comprised three broad categories: (1) biomedical training of traditional healers, (2) two-way referrals between traditional and biomedical providers, and (3) open-dialogue to foster mutual understanding among traditional and biomedical providers. CONCLUSION: Participants offered several approaches to collaboration between medical providers and traditional healers, however if we compare it to the history of previous attempts, education and understanding between both fields may be the most viable option in low- and middle-income contexts such as Nepal. Further research should expand and investigate opportunities for collaborative learning and/or care across not only Nepal, but other countries with a history of traditional and complimentary medicine.

Gender differences in a wide range of trauma symptoms after victimization and accidental traumas: a cross-sectional study in a clinical setting.

Background: There are large gender differences in PTSD prevalence. Gender differences in a wide range of trauma symptoms including disturbances in self-organization have not been extensively researched. Objective: To explore gender differences in a wide range of trauma symptoms by comparing victimization trauma (VT) with accidental trauma (AT). Method: A cross-sectional study of 110 traumatized patients attending a mental health outpatient clinic in Oslo, Norway (38.2% men, Mage = 40.4, 40% ethnic Norwegians). The trauma was categorized as VT or AT based on the Life Events Checklist. The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-PTSD-module and Structured Interview for Disorders of Extreme Stress Not-Otherwise-Specified (DESNOS) assessed a wide range of trauma symptoms. First, we examined gender differences within the trauma categories, then MANCOVA for an adjusted two-by-two between-groups analysis. Results: Among VT patients, men reported more symptoms of alteration of negative self-perception (p = .02, ES = 0.50) and alteration in systems of meaning (p < .01, ES = 1.04). Within the AT group, women reported more symptoms of affect and impulses (p = .01, ES = 0.94). The VT-AT difference was significantly higher in men in intrusion (p < .01, η2 = 0.04), affect and impulses (p < .01, η2 = 0.12), negative self-perception (p < .01, η2 = 0.11), difficulty in relations (p = .01, η2 = 0.10) and alterations in systems of meaning (p = .01, η2 = 0.14). Conclusion: Comparing the VT-AT differences between the genders, men with VT had relatively more symptoms of intrusion, self-organization, identity, ideology/meaning, cognition, and relations difficulties. Effect sizes were moderate to large. Men may be relatively more vulnerable to VT than AT, while women may be more equally affected by VT and AT. Acknowledging possible gender differences in a wider range of trauma symptoms depending on trauma category may have clinical benefits.

Antecedentes: Existen grandes diferencias de género en la prevalencia del trastorno de estrés postraumático. Las posibles diferencias de género en una amplia gama de síntomas de trauma, incluidas las alteraciones en la autoorganización, no se han investigado exhaustivamente.Objetivo: Explorar las diferencias de género en una amplia gama de síntomas de trauma comparando el trauma de victimización (TV) con los traumas accidentales (TA).Método: Un estudio transversal de 110 pacientes traumatizados que asistían a una clínica ambulatoria de salud mental en Oslo, Noruega (38,2% hombres, edad promedio = 40,4, 40% de etnia noruega). El trauma primario se clasificó como TV o TA según la Lista de verificación de eventos vitales. La Entrevista clínica estructurada para el módulo DSM-IV-TEPT y la Entrevista estructurada para trastornos de estrés extremo no especificado (DESNOS en su sigla en inglés) evaluaron una amplia gama de síntomas de trauma, principalmente analizando puntuaciones brutas de síntomas. Primero, examinamos las diferencias de género dentro de las categorías de trauma. Luego usamos MANCOVA para un análisis ajustado de dos por dos entre grupos.Resultados: Entre los afectados por TV, los hombres reportaron más síntomas de alteración de la autopercepción negativa (p = .02, ES = 0.50) y alteración en los sistemas de significado (p < .01, ES = 1.04). Dentro del grupo TA, las mujeres informaron más síntomas de afecto e impulsos (p = 0.01, ES = 0,94). La diferencia TV-TA fue significativamente mayor en los hombres en uno de los tres grupos de síntomas de TEPT, intrusión (p < .01, η2 = 0.04), y cuatro de seis dominios de DESNOS, afecto e impulsos (p < .01, η2 = 0.12), autopercepción negativa (p < .01, η2 = 0.11), dificultad en las relaciones con los demás (p = .01, η2 = 0.10) y alteraciones en los sistemas de significado (p = .01, η2 = 0.14).Conclusión: Al comparar las diferencias de TV y TA entre los géneros, los hombres con TV tenían relativamente más síntomas de intrusión, autoorganización, identidad, ideología/significado, cognición y dificultades en las relaciones. Los tamaños del efecto fueron de moderados a grandes. Los hombres pueden ser relativamente más vulnerables al TV que al TA, mientras que las mujeres pueden verse más igualmente afectadas por el TV y el TA. Reconocer las posibles diferencias de género en una gama más amplia de síntomas de trauma según la categoría del trauma puede tener beneficios clínicos.

Exploring complex PTSD in patients visiting a psychiatric outpatient clinic in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Decades of research on trauma patients have shown that a post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis does not always cover the full spectrum of symptoms after severe trauma. Complex PTSD (CPTSD) was recently introduced in the International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision. There have been no published studies on CPTSD in the South Asian region to date. The objective of this study was to evaluate CPTSD in a sample of trauma patients in Nepal. We also examined quality of life (QOL) and mental health comorbidities and their association with CPTSD caseness. One hundred patients with a history of trauma who visited the outpatient psychiatry clinic at a hospital in Kathmandu from 2017 to 2018 were assessed. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview Version 2.1 was used to evaluate PTSD, major depressive disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Disturbance of self-organization symptoms from the Structured Interview for Disorders of Extreme Stress (SIDES) together with the PTSD diagnosis was used to confirm CPTSD caseness. The World Health Organization (WHO) QOL Scale Brief Version (WHOQOL-BREF) was used to assess QOL in four domains. Among the 83 patients who had PTSD, 42 also had CPTSD. CPTSD was significantly associated with major depressive disorder, GAD, female gender, and lower QOL in all four domains. CPTSD was prevalent among these patients. Having CPTSD was significantly associated with worse outcomes in terms of QOL and comorbid mental disorders, even with similar trauma. There is a need to explore CPTSD symptoms and to address trauma patients with CPTSD in this region.

Trauma related psychiatric disorders and their correlates in a clinical sample: A cross-sectional study in trauma affected patients visiting a psychiatric clinic in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Nepal, like many other low-income countries, has a great burden of mental health issues but few resources to meet them. In addition, Nepal has endured several traumatic events in recent decades but the impact on mental health has not been studied in clinical settings. This study explores trauma-related psychiatric disorders and their correlates. METHODS: 100 patients with a history of trauma who visited the outpatient psychiatry clinic at a University hospital in Kathmandu were assessed. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview 2.1 (CIDI) was used to evaluate lifetime and current depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and lifetime post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Current PTSD was evaluated using PSTD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C). RESULTS: The median number of lifetime traumatic events was two. Natural disaster was the most common trauma type (84%) compared to other types of trauma. Rape was reported as the most traumatizing. Current PTSD was found in 15%, depression in 33% and GAD in 38% of the patients. The lifetime rates were PTSD 83%, depression 45% and GAD 40%. There was high comorbidity between the disorders. The 31 to 45 years age group, above high school education level and trauma types other than earthquake were independently associated with current PTSD. Marital status and upper socioeconomic status (SES) compared to upper-middle SES were independently associated with lifetime PTSD. Both lifetime and current depression rates were independently associated with the upper SES compared to upper-middle SES. Place of living, education above high school and lower-middle SES were significantly associated with lifetime and current GAD. CONCLUSION: PTSD, depression and GAD were prevalent in a trauma exposed patient population visiting a psychiatric clinic in Nepal. High rates of comorbidities and several risk factors were identified. Our findings highlight the need for addressing trauma related disorders in clinical settings in developing countries.