Macrophages coordinate immune response to laser-induced injury via extracellular traps.

BACKGROUND: Retinal degeneration results from disruptions in retinal homeostasis due to injury, disease, or aging and triggers peripheral leukocyte infiltration. Effective immune responses rely on coordinated actions of resident microglia and recruited macrophages, critical for tissue remodeling and repair. However, these phagocytes also contribute to chronic inflammation in degenerated retinas, yet the precise coordination of immune response to retinal damage remains elusive. Recent investigations have demonstrated that phagocytic cells can produce extracellular traps (ETs), which are a source of self-antigens that alter the immune response, which can potentially lead to tissue injury. METHODS: Innovations in experimental systems facilitate real-time exploration of immune cell interactions and dynamic responses. We integrated in vivo imaging with ultrastructural analysis, transcriptomics, pharmacological treatments, and knockout mice to elucidate the role of phagocytes and their modulation of the local inflammatory response through extracellular traps (ETs). Deciphering these mechanisms is essential for developing novel and enhanced immunotherapeutic approaches that can redirect a specific maladaptive immune response towards favorable wound healing in the retina. RESULTS: Our findings underscore the pivotal role of innate immune cells, especially macrophages/monocytes, in regulating retinal repair and inflammation. The absence of neutrophil and macrophage infiltration aids parenchymal integrity restoration, while their depletion, particularly macrophages/monocytes, impedes vascular recovery. We demonstrate that macrophages/monocytes, when recruited in the retina, release chromatin and granular proteins, forming ETs. Furthermore, the pharmacological inhibition of ETosis support retinal and vascular repair, surpassing the effects of blocking innate immune cell recruitment. Simultaneously, the absence of ETosis reshapes the inflammatory response, causing neutrophils, helper, and cytotoxic T-cells to be restricted primarily in the superficial capillary plexus instead of reaching the damaged photoreceptor layer. CONCLUSIONS: Our data offer novel insights into innate immunity's role in responding to retinal damage and potentially help developing innovative immunotherapeutic approaches that can shift the immune response from maladaptive to beneficial for retinal regeneration.

Endothelial Toll-like receptor 4 is required for microglia activation in the murine retina after systemic lipopolysaccharide exposure.

BACKGROUND: Clustering of microglia around the vasculature has been reported in the retina and the brain after systemic administration of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in mice. LPS acts via activation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TRL4), which is expressed in several cell types including microglia, monocytes and vascular endothelial cells. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of systemic LPS in the pigmented mouse retina and the involvement of endothelial TLR4 in LPS-induced retinal microglia activation. METHODS: C57BL/6J, conditional knockout mice that lack Tlr4 expression selectively on endothelial cells (TekCre-posTlr4loxP/loxP) and TekCre-negTlr4loxP/loxP mice were used. The mice were injected with 1 mg/kg LPS via the tail vein once per day for a total of 4 days. Prior to initiation of LPS injections and approximately 5 h after the last injection, in vivo imaging using fluorescein angiography and spectral-domain optical coherence tomography was performed. Immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, electroretinography and transmission electron microscopy were utilized to investigate the role of endothelial TLR4 in LPS-induced microglia activation and retinal function. RESULTS: Activation of microglia, infiltration of monocyte-derived macrophages, impaired ribbon synapse organization and retinal dysfunction were observed after the LPS exposure in C57BL/6J and TekCre-negTlr4loxP/loxP mice. None of these effects were observed in the retinas of conditional Tlr4 knockout mice after the LPS challenge. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of the present study suggest that systemic LPS exposure can have detrimental effects in the healthy retina and that TLR4 expressed on endothelial cells is essential for retinal microglia activation and retinal dysfunction upon systemic LPS challenge. This important finding provides new insights into the role of microglia-endothelial cell interaction in inflammatory retinal disease.

Effect of Inhibition of Colony-Stimulating Factor 1 Receptor on Choroidal Neovascularization in Mice.

Neovascular age-related macular degeneration is one of the leading causes of blindness. Microglia and macrophages play a critical role in choroidal neovascularization (CNV) and may, therefore, be potential targets to modulate the disease course. This study evaluated the effect of the colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor inhibitor PLX5622 on experimental laser-induced CNV. A 98% reduction of retinal microglia cells was observed in the retina 1 week after initiation of PLX5622 treatment, preventing accumulation of macrophages within the laser site and leading to a reduction of leukocytes within the choroid after CNV induction. Mice treated with PLX5622 had a significantly faster decrease of the CNV lesion size, as revealed by in vivo imaging and immunohistochemistry from day 3 to day 14 compared with untreated mice. Several inflammatory modulators, such as chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 9, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor-I, IL-1α, and matrix metallopeptidase-2, were elevated in the acute phase of the disease when microglia were ablated with PLX5622, whereas other cytokines (eg, interferon-γ, IL-4, and IL-10) were reduced. Our results suggest that colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor inhibition may be a novel therapeutic target in patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration.

Inhibition of inflammatory cells delays retinal degeneration in experimental retinal vein occlusion in mice.

The role of microglia in retinal inflammation is still ambiguous. Branch retinal vein occlusion initiates an inflammatory response whereby resident microglia cells are activated. They trigger infiltration of neutrophils that exacerbate blood-retina barrier damage, regulate postischemic inflammation and irreversible loss of neuroretina. Suppression of microglia-mediated inflammation might bear potential for mitigating functional impairment after retinal vein occlusion (RVO). To test this hypothesis, we depleted microglia by PLX5622 (a selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets the colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor) in fractalkine receptor reporter mice (Cx3cr1gfp/+ ) subjected to various regimens of PLX5622 treatment and experimental RVO. Effectiveness of microglia suppression and retinal outcomes including retinal thickness as well as ganglion cell survival were compared to a control group of mice with experimental vein occlusion only. PLX5622 caused dramatic suppression of microglia. Despite vein occlusion, reappearance of green fluorescent protein positive cells was strongly impeded with continuous PLX5622 treatment and significantly delayed after its cessation. In depleted mice, retinal proinflammatory cytokine signaling was diminished and retinal ganglion cell survival improved by almost 50% compared to nondepleted animals 3 weeks after vein occlusion. Optical coherence tomography suggested delayed retinal degeneration in depleted mice. In summary, findings indicate that suppression of cells bearing the colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor, mainly microglia and monocytes, mitigates ischemic damage and salvages retinal ganglion cells. Blood-retina barrier breakdown seems central in the disease mechanism, and complex interactions between different cell types composing the blood-retina barrier as well as sustained hypoxia might explain why the protective effect was only partial.

Colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor inhibition prevents disruption of the blood-retina barrier during chronic inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Microglia-associated inflammation is closely related to the pathogenesis of various retinal diseases such as uveitis and diabetic retinopathy, which are associated with increased vascular permeability. In this study, we investigated the effect of systemic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exposure to activation and proliferation of retinal microglia /macrophages. METHODS: Balb/c and Cx3cr1gfp/+ mice were challenged with LPS (1 mg/kg) daily for four consecutive days. For microglia depletion, mice were treated with colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF-1R) inhibitor PLX5622 1 week before the first LPS challenge and until the end of the experiment. In vivo imaging of the retina was performed on days 4 and 7 after the first LPS challenge, using optical coherence tomography and fluorescein angiography. Flow cytometry analysis, retinal whole mount, and retinal sections were used to investigate microglia and macrophage infiltration and proliferation after LPS challenge. Cytokines were analyzed in the blood as well as in the retina. Data analysis was performed using unpaired t tests, repeated measures one-way ANOVA, or ordinary one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. Kruskal-Wallis test followed by Dunn's multiple comparison tests was used for the analysis of non-normally distributed data. RESULTS: Repeated LPS challenge led to activation and proliferation of retinal microglia, infiltration of monocyte-derived macrophages into the retina, and breakdown of the blood-retina barrier (BRB) accompanied by accumulation of sub-retinal fluid. Using in vivo imaging, we show that the breakdown of the BRB is highly reproducible but transitory. Acute but not chronic systemic exposure to LPS triggered a robust release of inflammatory mediators in the retina with minimal effects in the blood plasma. Inhibition of the CSF-1R by PLX5622 resulted in depletion of retinal microglia, suppression of cytokine production in the retina, and prevention of BRB breakdown. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that microglia/macrophages play an important role in the pathology of retinal disorders characterized by breakdown of the BRB, and suppression of their activation may be a potential therapeutic target for such retinopathies.

Imaging of macrophage dynamics with optical coherence tomography in anterior ischemic optic neuropathy.

Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION) is a relatively common cause of visual loss and results from hypoperfusion of the small arteries of the anterior portion of the optic nerve. AION is the leading cause of sudden optic nerve related vision loss with approximately 10 cases per 100'000 in the population over 50 years. To date there is no established treatment for AION and therefore a better understanding of the events occurring at the level of the optic nerve head (ONH) would be important to design future therapeutic strategies. The optical properties of the eye allow imaging of the optic nerve in vivo, which is a part of the CNS, during ischemia. Experimentally laser induced optic neuropathy (eLiON) displays similar anatomical features as anterior ischemic optic neuropathy in humans. After laser induced optic neuropathy we show that hyperreflective dots in optical coherence tomography correspond to mononuclear cells in histology. Using fluorescence-activated flow cytometry (FACS) we found these cells to peak one week after eLiON. These observations were translated to OCT findings in patients with AION, where similar dynamics of hyperreflective dots at the ONH were identified. Our data suggests that activated macrophages can be identified as hyperreflective dots in OCT.

Endogenous and Synthetic Cannabinoids as Therapeutics in Retinal Disease.

The functional significance of cannabinoids in ocular physiology and disease has been reported some decades ago. In the early 1970s, subjects who smoked Cannabis sativa developed lower intraocular pressure (IOP). This led to the isolation of phytocannabinoids from this plant and the study of their therapeutic effects in glaucoma. The main treatment of this disease to date involves the administration of drugs mediating either the decrease of aqueous humour synthesis or the increase of its outflow and thus reduces IOP. However, the reduction of IOP is not sufficient to prevent visual field loss. Retinal diseases, such as glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy, have been defined as neurodegenerative diseases and characterized by ischemia-induced excitotoxicity and loss of retinal neurons. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies must be applied in order to target retinal cell death, reduction of visual acuity, and blindness. The aim of the present review is to address the neuroprotective and therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in retinal disease.

Synthetic and endogenous cannabinoids protect retinal neurons from AMPA excitotoxicity in vivo, via activation of CB1 receptors: Involvement of PI3K/Akt and MEK/ERK signaling pathways.

Cannabinoids have been suggested to protect retinal ganglion cells in different models of toxicity, but their effects on other retinal neurons are poorly known. We investigated the neuroprotective actions of the endocannabinoid N-arachidonoyl ethanolamine (Anandamide/AEA) and the synthetic cannabinoids R1-Methanandamide (MethAEA) and HU-210, in an in vivo retinal model of AMPA excitotoxicity, and the mechanisms involved in the neuroprotection. Sprague-Dawley rats were intravitreally injected with PBS or AMPA in the absence or presence of the cannabinoid agonists. Brain nitric oxide synthase (bNOS) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) immunoreactivity (IR), as well as TUNEL staining, assessed the AMPA-induced retinal amacrine cell loss and the dose-dependent neuroprotection afforded by cannabinoids. The CB1 receptor selective antagonist AM251 and the PI3K/Akt inhibitor wortmannin reversed the cannabinoid-induced neuroprotection, suggesting the involvement of CB1 receptors and the PI3K/Akt pathway in cannabinoids' actions. Experiments with the CB2 agonist JWH015 and [(3)H]CP55940 radioligand binding suggested that the CB2 receptor is not involved in the neuroprotection. AEA and HU-210 induced phosphorylation of Akt but only AEA induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 kinases, as revealed by western blot analysis. To investigate the role of caspase-3 in the AMPA-induced cell death, the caspase-3 inhibitor Z-DEVD-FMK was co-injected with AMPA. Z-DEVD-FMK had no effect on AMPA excitotoxicity. Moreover, no difference was observed in the phosphorylation of SAPK/JNK kinases between PBS- and AMPA-treated retinas. These results suggest that endogenous and synthetic cannabinoids protect retinal amacrine neurons from AMPA excitotoxicity in vivo via a mechanism involving the CB1 receptors, and the PI3K/Akt and/or MEK/ERK1/2 signaling pathways.

Multimodal imaging of experimental choroidal neovascularization.

AIM: To compare choroidal neovascularization (CNV) lesion measurements obtained by in vivo imaging modalities, with whole mount histological preparations stained with isolectin GS-IB4, using a murine laser-induced CNV model. METHODS: B6N.Cg-Tg(Csf1r-EGFP)1Hume/J heterozygous adult mice were subjected to laser-induced CNV and were monitored by fluorescein angiography (FA), multicolor (MC) fundus imaging and optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) at day 14 after CNV induction. Choroidal-retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) whole mounts were prepared at the end of the experiment and were stained with isolectin GS-IB4. CNV areas were measured in all different imaging modalities at day 14 after CNV from three independent raters and were compared to choroidal-RPE whole mounts. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) type 2 (2-way random model) and its 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated to measure the correlation between different raters' measurements. Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (Spearman's r) was calculated for the comparison between FA, MC and OCTA data and histology data. RESULTS: FA (early and late) and MC correlates well with the CNV measurements ex vivo with FA having slightly better correlation than MC (FA early Spearman's r=0.7642, FA late Spearman's r=0.7097, and MC Spearman's r=0.7418), while the interobserver reliability was good for both techniques (FA early ICC=0.976, FA late ICC=0.964, and MC ICC=0.846). In contrast, OCTA showed a poor correlation with ex vivo measurements (Spearman's r=0.05716) and high variability between different raters (ICC=0.603). CONCLUSION: This study suggests that FA and MC imaging could be used for the evaluation of CNV areas in vivo while caution must be taken and comparison studies should be performed when OCTA is employed as a CNV monitoring tool in small rodents.

Systemic Lipopolysaccharide Exposure Exacerbates Choroidal Neovascularization in Mice.

This study aims to investigate the effect of a systemic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulus in the course of laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in C57BL/6 J mice. A group of CNV-subjected mice received 1 mg/kg LPS via the tail vein immediately after CNV induction. Mouse eyes were monitored in vivo with fluorescein angiography for 2 weeks. In situ hybridization and flow cytometry were performed in the retina at different time points. LPS led to increased fluorescein leakage 3 days after CNV, correlated with a large influx of monocyte-derived macrophages and increase of pro-inflammatory microglia/macrophages in the retina. Additionally, LPS enhanced Vegfα mRNA expression by Glul-expressing cells but not Aif1 positive microglia/macrophages in the laser lesion. These findings suggest that systemic LPS exposure has transient detrimental effects in the course of CNV through activation of microglia/macrophages to a pro-inflammatory phenotype and supports the important role of these cells in the CNV course.

In vivo analysis of onset and progression of retinal degeneration in the Nr2e3rd7/rd7 mouse model of enhanced S-cone sensitivity syndrome.

The photoreceptor-specific nuclear receptor Nr2e3 is not expressed in Nr2e3rd7/rd7 mice, a mouse model of the recessively inherited retinal degeneration enhanced S-cone sensitivity syndrome (ESCS). We characterized in detail C57BL/6J Nr2e3rd7/rd7 mice in vivo by fundus photography, optical coherence tomography and fluorescein angiography and, post mortem, by histology and immunohistochemistry. White retinal spots and so-called 'rosettes' first appear at postnatal day (P) 12 in the dorsal retina and reach maximal expansion at P21. The highest density in 'rosettes' is observed within a region located between 100 and 350 µM from the optic nerve head. 'Rosettes' disappear between 9 to 12 months. Non-apoptotic cell death markers are detected during the slow photoreceptor degeneration, at a rate of an approximately 3% reduction of outer nuclear layer thickness per month, as observed from 7 to 31 months of age. In vivo analysis of Nr2e3rd7/rd7 Cx3cr1gfp/+ retinas identified microglial cells within 'rosettes' from P21 on. Subretinal macrophages were observed in vivo and by confocal microscopy earliest in 12-months-old Nr2e3rd7/rd7 retinas. At P21, S-opsin expression and the number of S-opsin expressing dorsal cones was increased. The dorso-ventral M-cone gradient was present in Nr2e3rd7/rd7 retinas, but M-opsin expression and M-opsin expressing cones were decreased. Retinal vasculature was normal.

The endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol and dual ABHD6/MAGL enzyme inhibitors display neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory actions in the in vivo retinal model of AMPA excitotoxicity.

The endocannabinoid system has been shown to be a putative therapeutic target for retinal disease. Here, we aimed to investigate the ability of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and novel inhibitors of its metabolic enzymes, α/ß-hydrolase domain-containing 6 (ABHD6) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), a) to protect the retina against excitotoxicity and b) the mechanisms involved in the neuroprotection. Sprague-Dawley rats, wild type and Akt2-/- C57BL/6 mice were intravitreally administered with phosphate-buffered saline or (RS)-α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid hydrobromide (AMPA). 2-AG was intravitreally co-administered with AMPA in the absence and presence of AM251 or AM630 (cannabinoid 1 and 2 receptor antagonists, respectively) or Wortmannin [Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase (PI3K)/Akt inhibitor]. Inhibitors of ABHD6 and dual ABHD6/MAGL (AM12100 and AM11920, respectively) were co-administered with AMPA intravitreally in rats. Immunohistochemistry was performed using antibodies raised against retinal neuronal markers (bNOS), microglia (Iba1) and macroglia (GFAP). TUNEL assay and real-time PCR were also employed. The CB2 receptor was expressed in rat retina (approx. 62% of CB1 expression). 2-AG attenuated the AMPA-induced increase in TUNEL+ cells. 2-AG activation of both CB1 and CB2 receptors and the PI3K/Akt downstream signaling pathway, as substantiated by the use of Akt2-/- mice, afforded neuroprotection against AMPA excitotoxicity. AM12100 and AM11920 attenuated the AMPA-induced glia activation and produced a dose-dependent partial neuroprotection, with the dual inhibitor AM11920 being more efficacious. These results show that 2-AG has the pharmacological profile of a putative therapeutic for retinal diseases characterized by neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation, when administered exogenously or by the inhibition of its metabolic enzymes.

The Synthetic Microneurotrophin BNN27 Affects Retinal Function in Rats With Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes.

BNN27, a C17-spiroepoxy derivative of DHEA, was shown to have antiapoptotic properties via mechanisms involving the nerve growth factor receptors (tropomyosin-related kinase A [TrkA]/neurotrophin receptor p75 [p75NTR]). In this study, we examined the effects of BNN27 on neural/glial cell function, apoptosis, and inflammation in the experimental rat streptozotocin (STZ) model of diabetic retinopathy (DR). The ability of BNN27 to activate the TrkA receptor and regulate p75NTR expression was investigated. BNN27 (2,10, and 50 mg/kg i.p. for 7 days) administration 4 weeks post-STZ injection (paradigm A) reversed the diabetes-induced glial activation and loss of function of amacrine cells (brain nitric oxide synthetase/tyrosine hydroxylase expression) and ganglion cell axons via a TrkA receptor (TrkAR)-dependent mechanism. BNN27 activated/phosphorylated the TrkAY490 residue in the absence but not the presence of TrkAR inhibitor and abolished the diabetes-induced increase in p75NTR expression. However, it had no effect on retinal cell death (TUNEL+ cells). A similar result was observed when BNN27 (10 mg/kg i.p.) was administered at the onset of diabetes, every other day for 4 weeks (paradigm B). However, BNN27 decreased the activation of caspase-3 in both paradigms. Finally, BNN27 reduced the proinflammatory (TNFα and IL-1ß) and increased the anti-inflammatory (IL-10 and IL-4) cytokine levels. These findings suggest that BNN27 has the pharmacological profile of a therapeutic for DR, since it targets both the neurodegenerative and inflammatory components of the disease.

In Vivo Imaging of Cx3cr1gfp/gfp Reporter Mice with Spectral-domain Optical Coherence Tomography and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy.

Spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) are extensively used in experimental ophthalmology. In the present protocol, mice expressing green fluorescent protein (gfp) under the promoter of Cx3cr1 (BALB/c-Cx3cr1gfp/gfp) were used to image microglia cells in vivo in the retina. Microglia are resident macrophages of the retina and have been implicated in several retinal diseases1,2,3,4,5,6. This protocol provides a detailed approach for generation of retinal B-scans, with SD-OCT, and imaging of microglia cell distribution in Cx3cr1gfp/gfp mice with SLO in vivo, using an ophthalmic imaging platform system. The protocol can be used in several reporter mouse lines. However, there are some limitations to the protocol presented here. First, both SLO and SD-OCT, when used in the high-resolution mode, collect data with high axial resolution but the lateral resolution is lower (3.5 µm and 6 µm, respectively). Moreover, the focus and saturation level in SLO is highly dependent on parameter selection and correct alignment of the eye. Additionally, using devices designed for human patients in mice is challenging due to the higher total optical power of the mouse eye compared to the human eye; this can lead to lateral magnification inaccuracies7, which are also dependent on the magnification by the mouse lens among others. However, despite that the axial scan position is dependent upon lateral magnification, the axial SD-OCT measurements are accurate8.

Dramatic Effect of Oral CSF-1R Kinase Inhibitor on Retinal Microglia Revealed by In Vivo Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy.

This report provides sound evidence that the small molecule pharmaceutical PLX5622, a highly selective CSF-1R kinase inhibitor, crosses the blood-retina barrier and suppresses microglia activity. Members of this class of drug are in advanced clinical development stages and may represent a novel approach to modulate ocular inflammatory processes.

Microglia Activation and Recruitment of Circulating Macrophages During Ischemic Experimental Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion.

Purpose: To characterize retinal microglia activation and macrophage recruitment in experimental branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO). Methods: Experimental BRVO was induced in Balb/c mice and histologic changes were studied. Tissue hypoxia was visualized using pimonidazole hydrochloride. Monocyte-derived retinal cells were quantified using histology and flow cytometry. To investigate the dynamics of invading blood-borne macrophages, chimera mice were generated using bone marrow grafts from Cx3cr1(gfp/gfp) mice to rescue lethally irradiated wild-type BALB/c mice. Longitudinal in vivo imaging was performed to monitor cell invasion. The levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the retina were quantified by quantitative real-time PCR. Results: Histology showed disruption of tissue architecture and temporary swelling with marked hypoxia coinciding with increased VEGF-A and hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) expression and elevation of proinflammatory cytokines within 3 days after experimental BRVO, followed by thinning of the inner retinal layers at later time points. Proinflammatory cytokine levels were elevated. Activation of resident retinal microglia and recruitment of circulating macrophages in areas of hypoxic retina were evident early after the insult and peaked at day 7, remaining elevated for up to 28 days. Flow cytometry showed upregulation of CD68 and major histocompatibility complex class-II (MHC-II) expression at day 3, culminating at day 7. Conclusions: Experimental BRVO causes hypoxia and breakdown of the inner blood-retina barrier, followed by activation of microglia and invasion of macrophages from the systemic circulation. Consequently, treatments targeting microglia activation or macrophage recruitment might potentially mitigate the sequelae and attenuate degenerative changes induced by retinal vein occlusion.

Noninvasive Quantification of Retinal Microglia Using Widefield Autofluorescence Imaging.

Purpose: To validate widefield autofluorescence (AF) in vivo imaging of the retina in mice expressing green fluorescent protein (gfp) in microglia, and to monitor retinal microglia reconstitution in vivo after lethal irradiation and bone marrow transplantation. Methods: Transgenic Cx3cr1gfp/gfp and wildtype Balb/c mice were used in this study. A confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope was used for AF imaging with a 55° and a widefield 102° lens. Intrasession reproducibility was assessed for each lens. To investigate reconstitution in vivo, bone marrow from Cx3cr1gfp/gfp mice was used to rescue lethally irradiated wildtype mice. Data were compared to confocal microscopy of retinal flat mounts. Results: Both the 55° and the 102° lens produced high resolution images of retinal microglia with similar microglia density. However, compared to the 55° lens, the widefield 102° lens captured approximately 3.6 times more microglia cells (1515 ± 123 cells versus 445 ± 76 cells [mean ± SD], for 102° and 55°, respectively, P < 0.001). No statistical difference in the number of gfp positive cells within corresponding areas was observed within the same imaging session. Imaging of microglia reconstitution showed a similar time course compared to flat mount preparations with an excellent correlation between microglia cell numbers in AF and gfp-stained flat mounts (R = 0.92, P < 0.0001). Conclusions: Widefield AF imaging of mice with gfp expressing microglia can be used to quantify retinal microglia. In vivo microglia counts corresponded very well with ex vivo counts on retinal flat mounts. As such, AF imaging can largely replace ex vivo quantification.

Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography in Mice: Comparison with Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy and Fluorescein Angiography.

PURPOSE: Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) allows noninvasive visualization of retinal vessels in vivo. OCT-A was used to characterize the vascular network of the mouse retina and was compared with fluorescein angiography (FA) and histology. METHODS: In the present study, OCT-A based on a Heidelberg Engineering Spectralis system was used to investigate the vascular network in mice. Data was compared with FA and confocal microscopy of flat-mount histology stained with isolectin IB4. For quantitative analysis the National Cancer Institute's AngioTool software was used. Vessel density, the number of vessel junctions, and endpoints were measured and compared between the imaging modalities. RESULTS: The configuration of the superficial capillary network was comparable with OCT-A and flat-mount histology in BALBc mice. However, vessel density and the number of vessel junctions per region of interest (P = 0.0161 and P = 0.0015, respectively) in the deep vascular network of BALBc mice measured by OCT-A was significantly higher than with flat-mount histology. In C3A.Cg-Pde6b+Prph2Rd2/J mice, where the deep capillary plexus is absent, analysis of the superficial network provided similar results for all three imaging modalities. CONCLUSION: OCT-A is a helpful imaging tool for noninvasive, in vivo imaging of the vascular plexus in mice. It may offer advantages over FA and confocal microscopy especially for imaging the deep vascular plexus. TRANSLATIONAL RELEVANCE: The present study shows that OCT-A can be employed for small animal imaging to assess the vascular network and offers advantages over flat-mount histology and FA.

The neurosteroid dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) protects the retina from AMPA-induced excitotoxicity: NGF TrkA receptor involvement.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the neuroprotective properties of the endogenous neurosteroid dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in an in vivo model of retinal excitotoxicity, and the involvement of Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) in its actions. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats (250-300 g) received intravitreally (RS)-alpha-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid hydrobromide (AMPA; 42 nmol/eye) alone or in combination with DHEA (10(-8), 10(-7), 10(-6) M), or PBS (50 mM, control group). To examine the involvement of NGF and its TrkA receptor in the pharmacological effects of DHEA, animals received AMPA and NGF (60 pg/eye) in the absence or presence of a TrkA receptor inhibitor (Calbiochem 648450, 10(-6) M) or AMPA, DHEA (10(-6) M) and TrkA receptor inhibitor (10(-6), 10(-5) M). Immunohistochemistry studies [choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), brain nitric oxide synthetase (bNOS), calbindin, and TUNEL] and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) were used to examine retinal cell loss and protection. TrkA receptor immunoreactivity (-IR) and colocalization studies with relevant markers were also performed. AMPA (42 nmol) treatment resulted in a loss of bNOS, ChAT and calbindin immunoreactivities 24 h after its administration. DHEA, administered intravitreally, protected the retina from excitotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner. This effect was mimicked by NGF, and reversed by the NGF TrkA receptor inhibitor. The TrkA receptor is expressed in ganglion cells of rat retina. TUNEL staining and FACS analysis substantiated the neuroprotective actions of DHEA. These results demonstrate for the first time that the neurosteroid DHEA, administered intravitreally, protects the retina from AMPA excitotoxicity. An NGF TrkA receptor mechanism appears to be involved in this neuroprotection.