Endothelial ET(B) limits vascular remodelling and development of pulmonary hypertension during hypoxia.

BACKGROUND: We hypothesised that the potential protective effects of endothelial ET(B) are important in limiting pulmonary vascular muscularisation, vasoconstriction and the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension in response to hypoxia. METHODS: EC-specific ET(B) knockout mice (EC ET(B)(-/-)) and control mice (ET(B)(f/f)) were subjected to hypobaric hypoxic (10% FiO2) or normoxic conditions for 14 days before assessment of right ventricular pressure and pulmonary vascular morphology and function. RESULTS: During normoxia, no difference in right ventricular pressure was detected between EC ET(B)(-/-) (23.7 +/- 1.7 mm Hg) and ET(B)(f/f) mice (20.2 +/- 1.5 mm Hg). Hypoxia induced an exaggerated increase in right ventricular pressure in EC ET(B)(-/-) mice (34.4 +/- 1.2 mm Hg vs. 24.6 +/- 1.4 mm Hg), accompanied by an increase in right ventricular mass. No effect was observed in ET(B)(f/f) mice. Endothelin-1 constricted pulmonary arteries from both groups, although maximum response was similar irrespective of inspired oxygen or genotype. Hypoxia increased the percentage of muscularised vessels in both groups of mice, but the percentage increase was significantly greater in EC ET(B)(-/-) mice. CONCLUSIONS: The potential protective effects of endothelial ET(B) are important in limiting pulmonary vascular muscularisation and the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension in response to hypoxia.

Endothelial cell-specific ETB receptor knockout: autoradiographic and histological characterisation and crucial role in the clearance of endothelin-1.

Inactivation of endothelin B receptors (ETB), either through selective pharmacological antagonism or genetic mutation, increases the circulating concentration of endothelin-1 (ET-1), suggesting ETB plays an important role in clearance of this peptide. However, the cellular site of ETB-mediated clearance has not yet been determined. We have used a novel mouse model of endothelial cell-specific knockout (KO) of ETB (EC ETB(-/-)) to evaluate the relative contribution of EC-ETB to the clearance of ET-1. Phenotypic evidence of EC-specific ETB KO was confirmed by immunocytochemistry and autoradiography. Binding of the radiolabelled selective ETB ligand BQ3020 was significantly and selectively decreased in EC-rich tissues of EC ETB(-/-) mice, including the lung, liver, and kidney. By contrast, ETA binding was unaltered. RT-PCR confirmed equal expression of ET-1 in tissue from EC ETB(-/-) mice and controls, despite increased concentration of plasma ET-1 in EC ETB(-/-). Clearance of an intravenous bolus of [(125)I]ET-1 was impaired in EC ETB(-/-) mice. Pretreatment with the selective ETB antagonist A192621 impaired [(125)I]ET-1 clearance in control animals to a similar extent, but did not further impair clearance in EC ETB(-/-) mice. These studies suggest that EC-ETB are largely responsible for the clearance of ET-1 from the circulation.

Endothelial cell dysfunction in mice after transgenic knockout of type 2, but not type 1, 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase.

BACKGROUND: 11beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11betaHSD) isozymes catalyze the interconversion of active and inactive glucocorticoids, allowing local regulation of corticosteroid receptor activation. Both are present in the vessel wall; here, using mice with selective inactivation of 11betaHSD isozymes, we test the hypothesis that 11betaHSDs influence vascular function. METHODS AND RESULTS: Thoracic aortas were obtained from weight-matched male wild-type (MF1x129 cross(+/+)), 11betaHSD1(-/-), and 11betaHSD2(-/-) mice. mRNA for both isozymes was detected in wild-type aortas by RT-PCR. 11betaHSD activity in aortic homogenates (48.81+/-4.65% conversion) was reduced in both 11betaHSD1(-/-) (6.36+/-2.47% conversion; P<0.0002) and 11betaHSD2(-/-) (24.71+/-3.69; P=0.002) mice. Functional responses were unaffected in aortic rings isolated from 11betaHSD1(-/-) mice. In contrast, aortas from 11betaHSD2(-/-) mice demonstrated selectively enhanced constriction to norepinephrine (E(max) 4.28+/-0.56 versus 1.72+/-0.47 mN/mm; P=0.004) attributable to impaired endothelium-derived nitric oxide activity. Relaxation responses to endothelium-dependent and -independent vasodilators were also impaired. To control for chronic renal mineralocorticoid excess, MF1 mice were treated with fludrocortisone (16 weeks) but did not reproduce the functional changes observed in 11betaHSD2(-/-) mice. CONCLUSIONS: Although both 11betaHSD isozymes are present in the vascular wall, reactivation of glucocorticoids by 11betaHSD1 does not influence aortic function. Mice with 11betaHSD2 knockout, however, have endothelial dysfunction causing enhanced norepinephrine-mediated contraction. This appears to be independent of renal sodium retention and may contribute to hypertension in 11betaHSD2 deficiency.

The ontogeny of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 and mineralocorticoid receptor gene expression reveal intricate control of glucocorticoid action in development.

Glucocorticoids play important roles in development and 'fetal programming'. Fetal exposure to excess glucocorticoids reduces birth weight and causes later hypertension. To investigate these processes further we have determined the detailed category of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type2 (11 beta-HSD2, which potently inactivates glucocorticoids) and the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) by in situ hybridisation from embryonic day 9.5 (E9.5, term = E19) until after birth in the mouse. Widespread abundant 11 beta-HSD2 mRNA expression from E9.5-E12.5 changes dramatically at approximately E13 to a limited tissue-specific pattern (kidney, hindgut, testis/bile ducts, lung and a few brain regions (later seen in cerebellum, thalamus, roof of midbrain, neuroepithelial regions in pons and near the subicular hippocampus)). Placenta (labyrinthine zone) and extra-embryonic membranes express abundant 11 beta-HSD2 mRNA until E15.5 but this ceases = E16.5. It is unclear to what extent rodent term placental 11 beta-HSD activity is due to persisting 11 beta-HSD2 protein. Convincing MR mRNA expression is seen from E13.5 and includes pituitary, heart, muscle and meninges with expression later in gut, kidney, thymus, discrete areas of lung and several brain regions (including hippocampus, rhinencephalon and hypothalamus). 11 beta-HSD2 and MR clearly co-localise = E18.5 in kidney and colon and might do so in discrete areas of lung (E14-15) and neuroepithelia near the subicular hippocampus. Probably elsewhere MR are non-selective and 11 beta-HSD2 is involved in protecting glucocorticoid receptors in fetal fetal tissues. Comparison with previous enzymology studies suggest the changing pattern of 11 beta-HSD2 mRNA is likely to be translated into enzyme activity and have significant parallels in human development.

Effect of protein kinase C activation on cytoskeleton and cation transport in human erythrocytes. Reproduction of some membrane abnormalities revealed in essential hypertension.

Certain manifestations of alterations of membrane cytoskeleton, protein kinase C activity, and ion transport were revealed in erythrocytes of patients with essential hypertension: 1) the average volume of erythrocytes is reduced by 4%; 2) about 7% of the total number of erythrocytes is represented by cup-shaped forms compared with 1.5 to 3.0% in the control group; 3) basal phosphorylation of Band 4.9 protein is increased 1.6-fold to 1.8-fold; 4) activity of protein kinase C is increased by 60 to 70%; 5) the rate of proton electrochemical gradient (delta mu H+)-induced Na+-H+ exchange is increased twofold. Treatment of erythrocytes of healthy donors with protein kinase C activator (12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate) leads to similar but more marked changes in cell shape (17% of cup-shaped forms), volume reduction (by 7%), an increase of Band 4.9 protein phosphorylation (threefold), and an increase in the rate of Na+-H+ exchange (fourfold). Protein kinase activation does not modify Na+-Li+ exchange and slightly increases (by 20-50%) Na+-K+ pump activity, Na+-K+ cotransport, and the rate of 45Ca influx. It may be assumed that the increase of protein kinase C activity is one of the most probable molecular mechanisms conditioning abnormalities of the membrane skeleton and Na+-H+ exchange in primary hypertension.

Interstrain restriction fragment length polymorphism of c-fos and c-src oncogene loci in spontaneously hypertensive and normotensive rats.

Interstrain restriction fragment length polymorphism was detected after Southern blot hybridization of spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) and control (WKY) rat DNA digested by Bam HI restrictase with a v-fos probe. The SHR genome was characterized by an additional minor band of 4.0 kb. Other restriction fragment length polymorphism was revealed in the c-src locus by Eco RI, Hind III and Pst I restrictases. The major characteristic bands were 1.6 kb (SHR) and 2.4 kb (WKY) after Eco RI restriction; 3.4 kb (SHR) and 4.1 kb (WKY) after Hind III restriction and 4.0 kb (SHR) and 4.6 kb (WKY) after Pst I restriction. This restriction fragment length polymorphism can be used as Mendelian traits in linkage studies on the distribution of blood pressure and other quantitative physiological traits in (SHR x WKY)F2 hybrids.

Cation transport and adenosine triphosphatase activity in rat erythrocytes: a comparison of spontaneously hypertensive rats with the normotensive Brown-Norway strain.

The activity of transport adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) in saponin-treated erythrocytes as well as the passive membrane permeability for 86Rb+ (K+), 45Ca2+ uptake (in the presence of orthovanadate) and the rate of Na(+)-H+ exchange in intact erythrocytes were studied in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) and Brown-Norway (BN.lx) rats. Higher Na+,K(+)-ATPase activity, lower Ca(2+)-ATPase activity, increased passive K+ permeability and greater 45Ca2+ uptake were observed in erythrocytes from SHR compared with BN.lx rats. Similar differences in the last two parameters were also disclosed by a comparison of SHR and WKY rats. The rate of Na(+)-H+ exchange in SHR erythrocytes was greater than in WKY rats but equal to that of BN.lx rats. A genetic analysis did not reveal a significant correlation between Na(+)-H+ exchange rate and blood pressure in F2 SHR x WKY hybrids.

Interstrain restriction fragment length polymorphism in the c-src correlates with Na,K cotransport and calcium content in hybrid rat erythrocytes.

Twenty-six F2 hybrids between spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) and normotensive control (WKY) rats [(SHR x WKY)F2] were segregated according to their c-src genotype into SS and WW homozygous groups, corresponding to SHR or WKY and a WS heterozygous group. The Na,K cotransport in erythrocytes in the WW group was equal to that of WKY and differed significantly from that of the WS and SS groups (the rate of Na,K cotransport in the latter groups was close to that of the SHR). The calcium content of the erythrocytes in the WW group was equal to that of the WKY, but lower than that of the WS and SS groups which, in turn, was significantly lower than that in the SHR, indicating polygenic control of the trait. We concluded that the c-src locus itself or some other loci inherited in conjunction with the c-src determines the increase in Na,K cotransport and in calcium content in erythrocytes of SHR.

Volume-dependent regulation of ion transport and membrane phosphorylation in human and rat erythrocytes.

Osmotic swelling of human and rat erythrocytes does not induce regulatory volume decrease. Regulatory volume increase was observed in shrunken erythrocytes of rats only. This reaction was blocked by the inhibitors of Na+/H+ exchange. Cytoplasmic acidification in erythrocytes of both species increases the amiloride-inhibited component of 22Na influx by five- to eight-fold. Both the osmotic and isosmotic shrinkage of rat erythrocytes results in the 10- to 30-fold increase of amiloride-inhibited 22Na influx and a two-fold increase of furosemide-inhibited 86Rb influx. We failed to indicate any significant changes of these ion transport systems in shrunken human erythrocytes. The shrinking of quin 2-loaded human and rat erythrocytes results in the two- to threefold increase of the rate of 45Ca influx, which is completely blocked by amiloride. The dependence of volume-induced 22Na influx in rat erythrocytes and 45Ca influx in human erythrocytes on amiloride concentration does not differ. The rate of 45Ca influx in resealed ghosts was reduced by one order of magnitude when intravesicular potassium and sodium were replaced by choline. It is assumed that the erythrocyte shrinkage increases the rate of a nonselective Cao2+/(Nai+, Ki+) exchange. Erythrocyte shrinking does not induce significant phosphorylation of membrane protein but increases the 32P incorporation in diphosphoinositides. The effect of shrinkage on the 32P labeling of phosphoinositides is diminished after addition of amiloride. It is assumed that volume-induced phosphoinositide response plays an essential role in the mechanism of the activation of transmembrane ion movements.

Foetal lung maturation in 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 knockout mice.

Glucocorticoids (GCs) induce surfactant synthesis in the late foetal lung. Deficient GC action causes respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11beta-HSD1) converts inert cortisone (11-dehydrocorticosterone in rodents) into active cortisol (corticosterone), thus amplifying intracellular GC action. Reduction or loss of pulmonary 11beta-HSD1 activity in glycyrrhetinic acid-treated rats substantially impaired foetal lung maturation (Hundertmark et al., Horm Metab Res, this issue). To test these data, we investigated 11beta-HSD1 activity and lung maturity in the late foetal lung using 11beta-HSD1 knockout mice. Control foetal mice showed high 11beta-HSD activity in the late foetal lung and levels of plasma 11-dehydrocorticosterone were high. Lungs from 11beta-HSD1 -/- mice had lower surfactant protein-A (mRNA and protein) levels and significant depletion of lung surfactant according to both light and electron microscopy, and also had reduced amniotic fluid lecithin/sphingomyelin ratios. These results support the previous experiments with glycyrrhetinic acid and emphasize the importance of 11beta-HSD1 in foetal lung maturation.

Molecular basis of human hypertension: role of angiotensinogen.

Essential hypertension is a common human disease believed to result from the interplay of multiple genetic and environmental determinants. In genetic studies of two large panels of hypertensive sibships from widely separated geographical areas, we obtained evidence of genetic linkage between the angiotensinogen gene (AGT) and hypertension, demonstrated association of AGT molecular variants with the disease, and found significant differences in plasma concentrations of angiotensinogen among hypertensive subjects with different AGT genotypes. The corroboration and replication afforded by these results support the interpretation that molecular variants of AGT constitute inherited predispositions to essential hypertension in humans.