Reconstruction of three-dimensional strain field in an asymmetrical curved core-shell hetero-nanowire.

Crystal orientation and strain mapping of an individual curved and asymmetrical core-shell hetero-nanowire (NW) is performed based on transmission electron microscopy. It relies on a comprehensive analysis of scanning nanobeam electron diffraction data obtained for 1.3 nm electron probe size. The proposed approach also handles the problem of appearing twinning defects on diffraction patterns and allows for the investigation of materials with high defect densities. Based on the experimental maps and their comparison with finite element simulations, the entire core-shell geometry including full three-dimensional strain distribution within the curved core-shell NW are obtained. Our approach represents, therefore, a low-dose quasi-tomography of the strain field within a nanoobject using only a single zone axis diffraction experiment. Our approach is applicable also for electron beam-sensitive materials for which performing conventional tomography is a difficult task.

Precise strain mapping of nano-twinned axial ZnTe/CdTe hetero-nanowires by scanning nanobeam electron diffraction.

The occurrence of strain is inevitable for the growth of lattice mismatched heterostructures. It affects greatly the mechanical, electrical and optical properties of nano-objects. It is also the case for nanowires which are characterized by a high surface to volume ratio. Thus, the knowledge of the strain distribution in nano-objects is critically important for their implementation into devices. This paper presents an experimental data for II-VI semiconductor system. Scanning nanobeam electron diffraction strain mapping technique for hetero-nanowires characterized by a large lattice mismatch (>6% in the case of CdTe/ZnTe) and containing segments with nano-twins has been described. The spatial resolution of about 2 nm is 10 times better than obtained in synchrotron nanobeam systems. The proposed approach allows us to overcome the difficulties related to nanowire thickness variations during the acquisition of the nano-beam electron diffraction data. In addition, the choice of optimal parameters used for the acquisition of nano-beam diffraction data for strain mapping has been discussed. The knowledge of the strain distribution enables, in our particular case, the improvement of the growth model of extremely strained axial nanowires synthetized by vapor-liquid solid growth mechanism. However, our method can be applied for the strain mapping in nanowire heterostructures grown by any other method.

Enhanced Ferromagnetism in Cylindrically Confined MnAs Nanocrystals Embedded in Wurtzite GaAs Nanowire Shells.

Nearly a 30% increase in the ferromagnetic phase transition temperature has been achieved in strained MnAs nanocrystals embedded in a wurtzite GaAs matrix. Wurtzite GaAs exerts tensile stress on hexagonal MnAs nanocrystals, preventing a hexagonal to orthorhombic structural phase transition, which in bulk MnAs is combined with the magnetic one. This effect results in a remarkable shift of the magneto-structural phase transition temperature from 313 K in the bulk MnAs to above 400 K in the tensely strained MnAs nanocrystals. This finding is corroborated by the state of the art transmission electron microscopy, sensitive magnetometry, and the first-principles calculations. The effect relies on defining a nanotube geometry of molecular beam epitaxy grown core-multishell wurtzite (Ga,In)As/(Ga,Al)As/(Ga,Mn)As/GaAs nanowires, where the MnAs nanocrystals are formed during the thermal-treatment-induced phase separation of wurtzite (Ga,Mn)As into the GaAs-MnAs granular system. Such a unique combination of two types of hexagonal lattices provides a possibility of attaining quasi-hydrostatic tensile strain in MnAs (impossible otherwise), leading to the substantial ferromagnetic phase transition temperature increase in this compound.

Pros and Cons of (NH4)2S Solution Treatment of p-GaN/Metallization Interface: Perspectives for Laser Diode.

The impact of wet treatment using an (NH4)2S-alcohol solution on the interface state of the p-GaN/Ni/Au/Pt contact system and laser diode processing was investigated. Sulfur wet cleaning resulted in reduced surface roughness and contact resistivity. The lowest specific contact resistance (ρc < 1 × 10-4 Ω·cm2) was achieved with samples treated with an (NH4)2S-isopropanol solution, whereas the highest resistivity (ρc = 3.3 × 10-4 Ω·cm2) and surface roughness (Ra = 16 nm) were observed in samples prepared by standard methods. Annealing the contact system in an N2 + O2 + H2O atmosphere caused degradation through species inter-diffusion and metal-metal solid solution formation, irrespective of the preparation method. Standard prepared substrates developed a thin GaN-Au intermediate layer at the interface after heat treatment. Enhanced adhesion and the absence of GaN decomposition were observed in samples additionally cleaned with the (NH4)2S-solvent solution. Complete oxidation of nickel to NiO was observed in samples that underwent additional sulfur solution treatment. The intensity of metal species mixing and nickel oxidation was influenced by the metal diffusion rate and was affected by the initial state of the GaN substrate obtained through different wet treatment methods.

Algorithm-Based Linearly Graded Compositions of GeSn on GaAs (001) via Molecular Beam Epitaxy.

The growth of high-composition GeSn films in the future will likely be guided by algorithms. In this study, we show how a logarithmic-based algorithm can be used to obtain high-quality GeSn compositions up to 16% on GaAs (001) substrates via molecular beam epitaxy. Herein, we use composition targeting and logarithmic Sn cell temperature control to achieve linearly graded pseudomorph Ge1-xSnx compositions up to 10% before partial relaxation of the structure and a continued gradient up to 16% GeSn. In this report, we use X-ray diffraction, simulation, secondary ion mass spectrometry, and atomic force microscopy to analyze and demonstrate some of the possible growths that can be produced with the enclosed algorithm. This methodology of growth is a major step forward in the field of GeSn development and the first ever demonstration of algorithmically driven, linearly graded GeSn films.

Palladium-Based Contacts on p-GaN and Their Application in Laser Diodes.

In this paper, we investigate the effect of Pd thickness and heat treatment on Pd/Ni/Au/p-GaN metal contacts. The as-deposited samples exhibit a smooth morphology and non-linear I-V characteristics. Heat treatment in a N2 atmosphere leads to degradation of the contact microstructure, resulting in diffusion of Ga, void formation on the interface and mixing of metals. Annealing in a mixture of N2 and O2 improves adhesion and reduces contact resistance. However, this process also induces GaN decomposition and species mixing. The mixing of metal-Ga and metal-metal remains unaffected by the method of thermal treatment but depends on gas composition for thin Pd contacts. To achieve low-resistance contacts (≈1 × 10-4 Ω cm2), we found that increasing the Pd thickness and using N2 + O2 as the annealing environment are effective measures. Nevertheless, the degradation effect of the annealed contact microstructure in the form of the void generation becomes evident as the thickness of Pd increases. Laser diodes (LDs) with optimized palladium-based contacts operate at a voltage of 4.1 V and a current density of 3.3 kA/cm².

The Role of the Built-In Electric Field in Recombination Processes of GaN/AlGaN Quantum Wells: Temperature- and Pressure-Dependent Study of Polar and Non-Polar Structures.

In this paper, we present a comparative analysis of the optical properties of non-polar and polar GaN/AlGaN multi-quantum well (MQW) structures by time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) and pressure-dependent studies. The lack of internal electric fields across the non-polar structures results in an improved electron and hole wavefunction overlap with respect to the polar structures. Therefore, the radiative recombination presents shorter decay times, independent of the well width. On the contrary, the presence of electric fields in the polar structures reduces the emission energy and the wavefunction overlap, which leads to a strong decrease in the recombination rate when increasing the well width. Taking into account the different energy dependences of radiative recombination in non-polar and polar structures of the same geometry, and assuming that non-radiative processes are energy independent, we attempted to explain the 'S-shape' behavior of the PL energy observed in polar GaN/AlGaN QWs, and its absence in non-polar structures. This approach has been applied previously to InGaN/GaN structures, showing that the interplay of radiative and non-radiative recombination processes can justify the 'S-shape' in polar InGaN/GaN MQWs. Our results show that the differences in the energy dependences of radiative and non-radiative recombination processes cannot explain the 'S-shape' behavior by itself, and localization effects due to the QW width fluctuation are also important. Additionally, the influence of the electric field on the pressure behavior of the investigated structures was studied, revealing different pressure dependences of the PL energy in non-polar and polar MQWs. Non-polar MQWs generally follow the pressure dependence of the GaN bandgap. In contrast, the pressure coefficients of the PL energy in polar QWs are highly reduced with respect to those of the bulk GaN, which is due to the hydrostatic-pressure-induced increase in the piezoelectric field in quantum structures and the nonlinear behavior of the piezoelectric constant.

Bi incorporation and segregation in the MBE-grown GaAs-(Ga,Al)As-Ga(As,Bi) core-shell nanowires.

Incorporation of Bi into GaAs-(Ga,Al)As-Ga(As,Bi) core-shell nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy is studied with transmission electron microscopy. Nanowires are grown on GaAs(111)B substrates with Au-droplet assisted mode. Bi-doped shells are grown at low temperature (300 °C) with a close to stoichiometric Ga/As flux ratio. At low Bi fluxes, the Ga(As,Bi) shells are smooth, with Bi completely incorporated into the shells. Higher Bi fluxes (Bi/As flux ratio ~ 4%) led to partial segregation of Bi as droplets on the nanowires sidewalls, preferentially located at the nanowire segments with wurtzite structure. We demonstrate that such Bi droplets on the sidewalls act as catalysts for the growth of branches perpendicular to the GaAs trunks. Due to the tunability between zinc-blende and wurtzite polytypes by changing the nanowire growth conditions, this effect enables fabrication of branched nanowire architectures with branches generated from selected (wurtzite) nanowire segments.

Polar and Non-Polar Zn1-xMgxO:Sb Grown by MBE.

The article presents a systematic study of Sb-doped Zn1-xMgxO layers, with various concentrations of Mg, that were successfully grown by plasma-assisted MBE on polar a- and c-oriented and non-polar r-oriented sapphire substrates. X-ray diffraction confirmed the polar c-orientation of alloys grown on c-and a-oriented sapphire and non-polar structures grown on r-oriented substrates. A uniform depth distribution of the Sb dopant at level of 2 × 1020 cm-3 was determined by SIMS measurements. Raman spectroscopy revealed the presence of Sb-related modes in all samples. It also showed that Mg alloying reduces the compressive strain associated with Sb doping in ZnO. XPS analysis indicates that the chemical state of Sb atoms in ZnMgO is 3+, suggesting a substitutional position of SbZn, probably associated with two VZn vacancies. Luminescence and transmission spectra were measured to determine the band gaps of the Zn1-xMgxO layers. The band gap energies extracted from the transmittance measurements differ slightly for the a, c, and r substrate orientations, and the differences increase with increasing Mg content, despite identical growth conditions. The differences between the energy gaps, determined from transmission and PL peaks, are closely correlated with the Stokes shift and increase with the Mg content in the analyzed series of ZnMgO layers.

Critical Evaluation of Various Spontaneous Polarization Models and Induced Electric Fields in III-Nitride Multi-Quantum Wells.

In this paper, ab initio calculations are used to determine polarization difference in zinc blende (ZB), hexagonal (H) and wurtzite (WZ) AlN-GaN and GaN-InN superlattices. It is shown that a polarization difference exists between WZ nitride compounds, while for H and ZB lattices the results are consistent with zero polarization difference. It is therefore proven that the difference in Berry phase spontaneous polarization for bulk nitrides (AlN, GaN and InN) obtained by Bernardini et al. and Dreyer et al. was not caused by the different reference phase. These models provided absolute values of the polarization that differed by more than one order of magnitude for the same material, but they provided similar polarization differences between binary compounds, which agree also with our ab initio calculations. In multi-quantum wells (MQWs), the electric fields are generated by the well-barrier polarization difference; hence, the calculated electric fields are similar for the three models, both for GaN/AlN and InN/GaN structures. Including piezoelectric effect, which can account for 50% of the total polarization difference, these theoretical data are in satisfactory agreement with photoluminescence measurements in GaN/AlN MQWs. Therefore, the three models considered above are equivalent in the treatment of III-nitride MQWs and can be equally used for the description of the electric properties of active layers in nitride-based optoelectronic devices.

Gold Nanoparticle Self-Aggregation on Surface with 1,6-Hexanedithiol Functionalization.

Here we study the morphology and the optical properties of assemblies made of small (17 nm) gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) directly on silicon wafers coated with (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane (APTES). We employed aliphatic 1,6-hexanedithiol (HDT) molecules to cross-link AuNPs during a two-stage precipitation procedure. The first immersion of the wafer in AuNP colloidal solution led mainly to the attachment of single particles with few inclusions of dimers and small aggregates. After the functionalization of precipitated NPs with HDT and after the second immersion in the colloidal solution of AuNP, we detected a sharp rise in the number of aggregates compared to single AuNPs and their dimers. The lateral size of the aggregates was about 100 nm, while some of them were larger than 1µm. We propose that the uncompensated dipole moment of the small aggregates appeared after the first precipitation and acts further as the driving force accelerating their further growth on the surface during the second precipitation. By having such inhomogeneous surface coating, the X-ray reciprocal space maps and modulation polarimetry showed well-distinguished signals from the single AuNPs and their dimers. From these observations, we concluded that the contribution from aggregated AuNPs does not hamper the detection and investigation of plasmonic effects for AuNP dimers. Meantime, using unpolarized and polarized light spectroscopy, the difference in the optical signals between the dimers, being formed because of self-aggregation and the one being cross-linked by means of HDT, was not detected.

Antireflection Enhancement by Composite Nanoporous Zeolite 3A-Carbon Thin Film.

A straightforward and effective spin-coating technique at 120 °C was investigated for the deposition of a thin nanoporous layer with antireflection properties onto glass and indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass. A mixture of zeolite 3A powder and high iodine value vegetable oil was deposited, creating a carbonic paste with embedded nanoporous grains. Experimental results evidenced excellent broadband antireflection over the visible-near-infrared wavelength range (450-850 nm), with a diffuse reflectance value of 1.67% and 1.79%. Structural and optical characteristics stabilized over time. The results are promising for the accessible and cost-effective fabrication of an antireflective surface for optoelectronic devices.

Formation of Nanoporous Anodic Alumina by Anodization of Aluminum Films on Glass Substrates.

Our research was aimed at the study of aluminum films and porous anodic alumina (PAA) films in thin-film РАА/Al structures for optical sensors, based on metal-clad waveguides (MCWG). The results of the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) studies of the structure of Al films, deposited by DC magnetron sputtering, and of PAA films, formed on them, are presented in this work.The study showed that the structure of the Al films is defined by the deposition rate of aluminum and the thickness of the film. We saw that under anodization in 0.3 M aqueous oxalic acid solution at a voltage of 40 V, the PAA film with a disordered array of pores was formed on aluminum films 200-600 nm thick, which were deposited on glass substrates with an ultra-thin adhesive Nb layer. The research revealed the formation of two differently sized types of pores. The first type of pores is formed on the grain boundaries of aluminum film, and the pores are directed perpendicularly to the surface of aluminum. The second type of pores is formed directly on the grains of aluminum. They are directed perpendicularly to the grain plains. There is a clear tendency to self-ordering in this type of pores.

Structural and Magnetoresistive Properties of Nanometric Films Based on Iron and Chromium Oxides on the Si Substrate.

Ultraviolet photons of KrF laser (248 nm) was used for the synthesis of nanometric films based on iron and chromium oxides (Fe2O3 - X (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) and Cr3 - X O3 - Y (0 ≤ x ≤ 2; 0 ≤ y ≤ 2)) with variable thickness, stoichiometry, and electrical properties. Film deposition was carried out on the silicon substrate Si < 100 > at the substrate's temperature T S = 293 K. X-ray diffraction and X-ray reflectometry analysis were used for the obtained structure characterization. Such a combined investigation reveals the composition and texture for samples investigated and provides useful information about layer thickness and roughness. Fe2O3 - X (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) nanometric films demonstrate the negative magnetoresistance in magnetic fields up 7 kOe. At the same time, for hybrid systems of the alternate layers Fe2O3 - X (0 ≤ x ≤ 1)/Cr3 - X O3 - Y (0 ≤ x ≤ 2; 0 ≤ y ≤ 2), the positive magnetoresistance as well as the magnetic hysteresis and magnetoresistivity switching effect in the low magnetic fields were observed.

The Peculiarities of Strain Relaxation in GaN/AlN Superlattices Grown on Vicinal GaN (0001) Substrate: Comparative XRD and AFM Study.

Superlattices (SLs) consisting of symmetric layers of GaN and AlN have been investigated. Detailed X-ray diffraction and reflectivity measurements demonstrate that the relaxation of built-up strain in the films generally increases with an increasing number of repetitions; however, an apparent relaxation for subcritical thickness SLs is explained through the accumulation of Nagai tilt at each interface of the SL. Additional atomic force microscopy measurements reveal surface pit densities which appear to correlate with the amount of residual strain in the films along with the appearance of cracks for SLs which have exceeded the critical thickness for plastic relaxation. These results indicate a total SL thickness beyond which growth may be limited for the formation of high-quality coherent crystal structures; however, they may indicate a growth window for the reduction of threading dislocations by controlled relaxation of the epilayers.