The identity and methylation status of the first transcribed nucleotide in eukaryotic mRNA 5' cap modulates protein expression in living cells.

7-Methylguanosine 5' cap on mRNA is necessary for efficient protein expression in vitro and in vivo. Recent studies revealed structural diversity of endogenous mRNA caps, which carry different 5'-terminal nucleotides and additional methylations (2'-O-methylation and m6A). Currently available 5'-capping methods do not address this diversity. We report trinucleotide 5' cap analogs (m7GpppN(m)pG), which are utilized by RNA polymerase T7 to initiate transcription from templates carrying Φ6.5 promoter and enable production of mRNAs differing in the identity of the first transcribed nucleotide (N = A, m6A, G, C, U) and its methylation status (±2'-O-methylation). HPLC-purified mRNAs carrying these 5' caps were used to study protein expression in three mammalian cell lines (3T3-L1, HeLa and JAWS II). The highest expression was observed for mRNAs carrying 5'-terminal A/Am and m6Am, whereas the lowest was observed for G and Gm. The mRNAs carrying 2'-O-methyl at the first transcribed nucleotide (cap 1) had significantly higher expression than unmethylated counterparts (cap 0) only in JAWS II dendritic cells. Further experiments indicated that the mRNA expression characteristic does not correlate with affinity for translation initiation factor 4E or in vitro susceptibility to decapping, but instead depends on mRNA purity and the immune state of the cells.

Fluorescent Turn-On Probes for the Development of Binding and Hydrolytic Activity Assays for mRNA Cap-Recognizing Proteins.

The m7 G cap is a unique nucleotide structure at the 5'-end of all eukaryotic mRNAs. The cap specifically interacts with numerous cellular proteins and participates in biological processes that are essential for cell growth and function. To provide small molecular probes to study important cap-recognizing proteins, we synthesized m7 G nucleotides labeled with fluorescent tags via the terminal phosph(on)ate group and studied how their emission properties changed upon protein binding or enzymatic cleavage. Only the pyrene-labeled compounds behaved as sensitive turn-on probes. A pyrene-labeled m7 GTP analogue showed up to eightfold enhanced fluorescence emission upon binding to eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) and over 30-fold enhancement upon cleavage by decapping scavenger (DcpS) enzyme. These observations served as the basis for developing binding- and hydrolytic-activity assays. The assay utility was validated with previously characterized libraries of eIF4E ligands and DcpS inhibitors. The DcpS assay was also applied to study hydrolytic activity and inhibition of endogenous enzyme in cytoplasmic extracts from HeLa and HEK cells.

5'-Phosphorothiolate Dinucleotide Cap Analogues: Reagents for Messenger RNA Modification and Potent Small-Molecular Inhibitors of Decapping Enzymes.

The 5' cap consists of 7-methylguanosine (m7G) linked by a 5'-5'-triphosphate bridge to messenger RNA (mRNA) and acts as the master regulator of mRNA turnover and translation initiation in eukaryotes. Cap analogues that influence mRNA translation and turnover (either as small molecules or as part of an RNA transcript) are valuable tools for studying gene expression, which is often also of therapeutic relevance. Here, we synthesized a series of 15 dinucleotide cap (m7GpppG) analogues containing a 5'-phosphorothiolate (5'-PSL) moiety (i.e., an O-to-S substitution within the 5'-phosphoester) and studied their biological properties in the context of three major cap-binding proteins: translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) and two decapping enzymes, DcpS and Dcp2. While the 5'-PSL moiety was neutral or slightly stabilizing for cap interactions with eIF4E, it significantly influenced susceptibility to decapping. Replacing the γ-phosphoester with the 5'-PSL moiety (γ-PSL) prevented ß-γ-pyrophosphate bond cleavage by DcpS and conferred strong inhibitory properties. Combining the γ-PSL moiety with α-PSL and ß-phosphorothioate (PS) moiety afforded first cap-derived hDcpS inhibitor with low nanomolar potency. Susceptibility to Dcp2 and translational properties were studied after incorporation of the new analogues into mRNA transcripts by RNA polymerase. Transcripts containing the γ-PSL moiety were resistant to cleavage by Dcp2. Surprisingly, superior translational properties were observed for mRNAs containing the α-PSL moiety, which were Dcp2-susceptible. The overall protein expression measured in HeLa cells for this mRNA was comparable to mRNA capped with the translation augmenting ß-PS analogue reported previously. Overall, our study highlights 5'-PSL as a synthetically accessible cap modification, which, depending on the substitution site, can either reduce susceptibility to decapping or confer superior translational properties on the mRNA. The 5'-PSL-analogues may find application as reagents for the preparation of efficiently expressed mRNA or for investigation of the role of decapping enzymes in mRNA processing or neuromuscular disorders associated with decapping.

7-Methylguanosine monophosphate analogues with 5'-(1,2,3-triazoyl) moiety: Synthesis and evaluation as the inhibitors of cNIIIB nucleotidase.

The hydrolysis of nucleoside 5'-monophosphates to the corresponding nucleosides and inorganic phosphate is catalysed by 5'-nucleotidases, thereby contributing to the control of endogenous nucleotide turnover and affecting the fate of exogenously delivered nucleotide- and nucleoside-derived therapeutics in cells. A recently identified nucleotidase cNIIIB shows preference towards 7-methylguanosine monophosphate (m7GMP) as a substrate, which suggests its potential involvement in mRNA degradation. However, the extent of biological functions and the significance of cNIIIB remains to be elucidated. Here, we synthesised a series of m7GMP analogues carrying a 1,2,3-triazole moiety at the 5' position as the potential inhibitors of human cNIIIB. The compounds were synthesised by using the copper-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) between 5'-azido-5'-deoxy-7-methylguanosine and different phosphate or phosphonate derivatives carrying terminal alkyne. The analogues were evaluated as cNIIIB inhibitors using HPLC and malachite green assays, demonstrating that compound 1a, carrying a 1,2,3-triazoylphosphonate moiety, inhibits cNIIIB activity at micromolar concentrations (IC50 87.8 ±â€¯7.5 µM), while other analogues showed no activity. In addition, compound 1d was identified as an artifical substrate for HscNIIIB. Further characterization of inhibitor 1a revealed that it is poorly recognised by other m7G-binding proteins, eIF4E and DcpS, indicating its selectivity towards cNIIIB. The first inhibitor (1a) and unnatural substrate (1d) of cNIIIB, identified here, can be used as molecular probes for the elucidation of biological roles of cNIIIB, including the verification of its proposed function in mRNA metabolism.

Human 4E-T represses translation of bound mRNAs and enhances microRNA-mediated silencing.

A key player in translation initiation is eIF4E, the mRNA 5' cap-binding protein. 4E-Transporter (4E-T) is a recently characterized eIF4E-binding protein, which regulates specific mRNAs in several developmental model systems. Here, we first investigated the role of its enrichment in P-bodies and eIF4E-binding in translational regulation in mammalian cells. Identification of the conserved C-terminal sequences that target 4E-T to P-bodies was enabled by comparison of vertebrate proteins with homologues in Drosophila (Cup and CG32016) and Caenorhabditis elegans by sequence and cellular distribution. In tether function assays, 4E-T represses bound mRNA translation, in a manner independent of these localization sequences, or of endogenous P-bodies. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction and northern blot analysis verified that bound mRNA remained intact and polyadenylated. Ectopic 4E-T reduces translation globally in a manner dependent on eIF4E binding its consensus Y30X4L site. In contrast, tethered 4E-T continued to repress translation when eIF4E-binding was prevented by mutagenesis of YX4L, and modestly enhanced the decay of bound mRNA, compared with wild-type 4E-T, mediated by increased binding of CNOT1/7 deadenylase subunits. As depleting 4E-T from HeLa cells increased steady-state translation, in part due to relief of microRNA-mediated silencing, this work demonstrates the conserved yet unconventional mechanism of 4E-T silencing of particular subsets of mRNAs.

Substrate-Based Design of Cytosolic Nucleotidase IIIB Inhibitors and Structural Insights into Inhibition Mechanism.

Cytosolic nucleotidases (cNs) catalyze dephosphorylation of nucleoside 5'-monophosphates and thereby contribute to the regulation of nucleotide levels in cells. cNs have also been shown to dephosphorylate several therapeutically relevant nucleotide analogues. cN-IIIB has shown in vitro a distinctive activity towards 7-mehtylguanosine monophosphate (m7GMP), which is one key metabolites of mRNA cap. Consequently, it has been proposed that cN-IIIB participates in mRNA cap turnover and prevents undesired accumulation and salvage of m7GMP. Here, we sought to develop molecular tools enabling more advanced studies on the cellular role of cN-IIIB. To that end, we performed substrate and inhibitor property profiling using a library of 41 substrate analogs. The most potent hit compounds (identified among m7GMP analogs) were used as a starting point for structure-activity relationship studies. As a result, we identified several 7-benzylguanosine 5'-monophosphate (Bn7GMP) derivatives as potent, unhydrolyzable cN-IIIB inhibitors. The mechanism of inhibition was elucidated using X-ray crystallography and molecular docking. Finally, we showed that compounds that potently inhibit recombinant cN-IIIB have the ability to inhibit m7GMP decay in cell lysates.

Structural Insights into the Interaction of Clinically Relevant Phosphorothioate mRNA Cap Analogs with Translation Initiation Factor 4E Reveal Stabilization via Electrostatic Thio-Effect.

mRNA-based therapies and vaccines constitute a disruptive technology with the potential to revolutionize modern medicine. Chemically modified 5' cap structures have provided access to mRNAs with superior translational properties that could benefit the currently flourishing mRNA field. Prime examples of compounds that enhance mRNA properties are antireverse cap analog diastereomers that contain an O-to-S substitution within the ß-phosphate (ß-S-ARCA D1 and D2), where D1 is used in clinically investigated mRNA vaccines. The compounds were previously found to have high affinity for eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) and augment translation in vitro and in vivo. However, the molecular basis for the beneficial "thio-effect" remains unclear. Here, we employed multiple biophysical techniques and captured 11 cap analog-eIF4E crystallographic structures to investigate the consequences of the ß-O-to-S or -Se substitution on the interaction with eIF4E. We determined the SP/RP configurations of ß-S-ARCA and related compounds and obtained structural insights into the binding. Unexpectedly, in both stereoisomers, the ß-S/Se atom occupies the same binding cavity between Lys162 and Arg157, indicating that the key driving force for complex stabilization is the interaction of negatively charged S/Se with positively charged amino acids. This was observed for all structural variants of the cap and required significantly different conformations of the triphosphate for each diastereomer. This finding explains why both ß-S-ARCA diastereomers have higher affinity for eIF4E than unmodified caps. Binding affinities determined for di-, tri-, and oligonucleotide cap analogs suggested that the "thio-effect" was preserved in longer RNAs. Our observations broaden the understanding of thiophosphate biochemistry and enable the rational design of translationally active mRNAs and eIF4E-targeting drugs.

Evaluation of carboxyfluorescein-labeled 7-methylguanine nucleotides as probes for studying cap-binding proteins by fluorescence anisotropy.

Fluorescence anisotropy (FA) is a powerful technique for the discovery of protein inhibitors in a high-throughput manner. In this study, we sought to develop new universal FA-based assays for the evaluation of compounds targeting mRNA 5' cap-binding proteins of therapeutic interest, including eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E and scavenger decapping enzyme. For this purpose, a library of 19 carboxyfluorescein probes based on 7-methylguanine nucleotides was evaluated as FA probes for these proteins. Optimal probe:protein systems were further investigated in competitive binding experiments and adapted for high-throughput screening. Using a small in-house library of compounds, we verified and confirmed the accuracy of the developed FA assay to study cap-binding protein binders. The applications of the most promising probes were then extended to include evaluation of allosteric inhibitors as well as RNA ligands. From this analysis, we confirmed the utility of the method to study small molecule ligands and evaluate differently 5' capped RNAs.

Novel N7-Arylmethyl Substituted Dinucleotide mRNA 5' cap Analogs: Synthesis and Evaluation as Modulators of Translation.

Dinucleotide analogs of the messenger RNA cap (m7GpppN) are useful research tools and have potential applications as translational inhibitors or reagents for modification of in vitro transcribed mRNAs. It has been previously reported that replacing the methyl group at the N7-position with benzyl (Bn) produces a dinucleotide cap with superior properties. Here, we followed up on this finding by synthesizing 17 novel Bn7GpppG analogs and determining their structure-activity relationship regarding translation and translational inhibition. The compounds were prepared in two steps, including selective N7-alkylation of guanosine 5'-monophosphate by arylmethyl bromide followed by coupling with imidazole-activated GDP, with total yields varying from 22% to 62%. The compounds were then evaluated by determining their affinity for eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E), testing their susceptibility to decapping pyrophosphatase, DcpS-which is most likely the major cellular enzyme targeting this type of compound-and determining their translation inhibitory properties in vitro. We also synthesized mRNAs capped with the evaluated compounds and tested their translational properties in A549 cells. Our studies identified N7-(4-halogenbenzyl) substituents as promising modifications in the contexts of either mRNA translation or translational inhibition. Finally, to gain more insight into the consequences at the molecular level of N7-benzylation of the mRNA cap, we determined the crystal structures of three compounds with eIF4E.

A novel route for preparing 5' cap mimics and capped RNAs: phosphate-modified cap analogues obtained via click chemistry.

The significant biological role of the mRNA 5' cap in translation initiation makes it an interesting subject for chemical modifications aimed at producing useful tools for the selective modulation of intercellular processes and development of novel therapeutic interventions. However, traditional approaches to the chemical synthesis of cap analogues are time-consuming and labour-intensive, which impedes the development of novel compounds and their applications. Here, we explore a different approach for synthesizing 5' cap mimics, making use of click chemistry (CuAAC) to combine two mononucleotide units and yield a novel class of dinucleotide cap analogues containing a triazole ring within the oligophosphate chain. As a result, we synthesized a library of 36 mRNA cap analogues differing in the location of the triazole ring, the polyphosphate chain length, and the type of linkers joining the phosphate and the triazole moieties. After biochemical evaluation, we identified two analogues that, when incorporated into mRNA, produced transcripts translated with efficiency similar to compounds unmodified in the oligophosphate bridge obtained by traditional synthesis. Moreover, we demonstrated that the triazole-modified cap structures can be generated at the RNA 5' end using two alternative capping strategies: either the typical co-transcriptional approach, or a new post-transcriptional approach based on CuAAC. Our findings open new possibilities for developing chemically modified mRNAs for research and therapeutic applications, including RNA-based vaccinations.

Distinct features of cap binding by eIF4E1b proteins.

eIF4E1b, closely related to the canonical translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E1a), cap-binding protein is highly expressed in mouse, Xenopus and zebrafish oocytes. We have previously characterized eIF4E1b as a component of the CPEB mRNP translation repressor complex along with the eIF4E-binding protein 4E-Transporter, the Xp54/DDX6 RNA helicase and additional RNA-binding proteins. eIF4E1b exhibited only very weak interactions with m(7)GTP-Sepharose and, rather than binding eIF4G, interacted with 4E-T. Here we undertook a detailed examination of both Xenopus and human eIF4E1b interactions with cap analogues using fluorescence titration and homology modeling. The predicted structure of eIF4E1b maintains the α+ß fold characteristic of eIF4E proteins and its cap-binding pocket is similarly arranged by critical amino acids: Trp56, Trp102, Glu103, Trp166, Arg112, Arg157 and Lys162 and residues of the C-terminal loop. However, we demonstrate that eIF4E1b is 3-fold less well able to bind the cap than eIF4E1a, both proteins being highly stimulated by methylation at N(7) of guanine. Moreover, eIF4E1b proteins are distinguishable from eIF4E1a by a set of conserved amino acid substitutions, several of which are located near to cap-binding residues. Indeed, eIF4E1b possesses several distinct features, namely, enhancement of cap binding by a benzyl group at N(7) position of guanine, a reduced response to increasing length of the phosphate chain and increased binding to a cap separated by a linker from Sepharose, suggesting differences in the arrangement of the protein's core. In agreement, mutagenesis of the amino acids differentiating eIF4E1b from eIF4E1a reduces cap binding by eIF4E1a 2-fold, demonstrating their role in modulating cap binding.

Investigating the consequences of eIF4E2 (4EHP) interaction with 4E-transporter on its cellular distribution in HeLa cells.

In addition to the canonical eIF4E cap-binding protein, eukaryotes have evolved sequence-related variants with distinct features, some of which have been shown to negatively regulate translation of particular mRNAs, but which remain poorly characterised. Mammalian eIF4E proteins have been divided into three classes, with class I representing the canonical cap-binding protein eIF4E1. eIF4E1 binds eIF4G to initiate translation, and other eIF4E-binding proteins such as 4E-BPs and 4E-T prevent this interaction by binding eIF4E1 with the same consensus sequence YX 4Lϕ. We investigate here the interaction of human eIF4E2 (4EHP), a class II eIF4E protein, which binds the cap weakly, with eIF4E-transporter protein, 4E-T. We first show that ratios of eIF4E1:4E-T range from 50:1 to 15:1 in HeLa and HEK293 cells respectively, while those of eIF4E2:4E-T vary from 6:1 to 3:1. We next provide evidence that eIF4E2 binds 4E-T in the yeast two hybrid assay, as well as in pull-down assays and by recruitment to P-bodies in mammalian cells. We also show that while both eIF4E1 and eIF4E2 bind 4E-T via the canonical YX 4Lϕ sequence, nearby downstream sequences also influence eIF4E:4E-T interactions. Indirect immunofluorescence was used to demonstrate that eIF4E2, normally homogeneously localised in the cytoplasm, does not redistribute to stress granules in arsenite-treated cells, nor to P-bodies in Actinomycin D-treated cells, in contrast to eIF4E1. Moreover, eIF4E2 shuttles through nuclei in a Crm1-dependent manner, but in an 4E-T-independent manner, also unlike eIF4E1. Altogether we conclude that while both cap-binding proteins interact with 4E-T, and can be recruited by 4E-T to P-bodies, eIF4E2 functions are likely to be distinct from those of eIF4E1, both in the cytoplasm and nucleus, further extending our understanding of mammalian class I and II cap-binding proteins.

Weak binding affinity of human 4EHP for mRNA cap analogs.

Ribosome recruitment to the majority of eukaryotic mRNAs is facilitated by the interaction of the cap binding protein, eIF4E, with the mRNA 5' cap structure. eIF4E stimulates translation through its interaction with a scaffolding protein, eIF4G, which helps to recruit the ribosome. Metazoans also contain a homolog of eIF4E, termed 4EHP, which binds the cap structure, but not eIF4G, and thus cannot stimulate translation, but it instead inhibits the translation of only one known, and possibly subset mRNAs. To understand why 4EHP does not inhibit general translation, we studied the binding affinity of 4EHP for cap analogs using two methods: fluorescence titration and stopped-flow measurements. We show that 4EHP binds cap analogs m(7)GpppG and m(7)GTP with 30 and 100 lower affinity than eIF4E. Thus, 4EHP cannot compete with eIF4E for binding to the cap structure of most mRNAs.