Genetic variants of phospholipase C-γ2 alter the phenotype and function of microglia and confer differential risk for Alzheimer's disease.

Genetic association studies have demonstrated the critical involvement of the microglial immune response in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Phospholipase C-gamma-2 (PLCG2) is selectively expressed by microglia and functions in many immune receptor signaling pathways. In AD, PLCG2 is induced uniquely in plaque-associated microglia. A genetic variant of PLCG2, PLCG2P522R, is a mild hypermorph that attenuates AD risk. Here, we identified a loss-of-function PLCG2 variant, PLCG2M28L, that confers an increased AD risk. PLCG2P522R attenuated disease in an amyloidogenic murine AD model, whereas PLCG2M28L exacerbated the plaque burden associated with altered phagocytosis and Aß clearance. The variants bidirectionally modulated disease pathology by inducing distinct transcriptional programs that identified microglial subpopulations associated with protective or detrimental phenotypes. These findings identify PLCG2M28L as a potential AD risk variant and demonstrate that PLCG2 variants can differentially orchestrate microglial responses in AD pathogenesis that can be therapeutically targeted.

Dementia exacerbates periodontal bone loss in females.

BACKGROUND: Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease defined by the pathologic loss of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone in relation to aging. Although clinical cohort studies reported that periodontitis is significantly elevated in males compared to females, emerging evidence indicates that females with dementia are at a greater risk for periodontitis and decreased alveolar bone. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate whether dementia is a potential sex-dependent risk factor for periodontal bone loss using an experimental model of periodontitis induced in the triple transgenic (3x-Tg) dementia-like mice and clinical samples collected from senior 65 plus age patients with diagnosed dementia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We induced periodontitis in dementia-like triple-transgenic (3x-Tg) male and female mice and age-matched wild-type (WT) control mice by ligature placement. Then, alveolar bone loss and osteoclast activity were evaluated using micro-CT and in situ imaging assays. In addition, we performed dental examinations on patients with diagnosed dementia. Finally, dementia-associated Aß42 and p-Tau (T181) and osteoclastogenic receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand (RANKL) in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) collected from mice and clinical samples were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Alveolar bone loss and in situ osteoclast activity were significantly elevated in periodontal lesions of 3x-Tg females but not males, compared to wild-type control mice. In addition, we also observed that the probing pocket depth (PPD) was also significantly elevated in female patients with dementia. Using ELISA assay, we observed that females had elevated levels of osteoclastogenic RANKL and dementia-associated Aß42 and p-Tau (T181) in the GCF collected from experimental periodontitis lesions and clinical samples. CONCLUSION: Altogether, we demonstrate that females with dementia have an increased risk for periodontal bone loss compared to males.

Transgenic amyloid precursor protein mouse models of amyloidosis. Incomplete models for Alzheimer's disease but effective predictors of anti-amyloid therapies.

INTRODUCTION: Amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgenic mice are models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) amyloidosis, not all of AD. Diffuse, compacted, and vascular deposits in APP mice mimic those found in AD cases. METHODS: Most interventional studies in APP mice start treatment early in the process of amyloid deposition, consistent with a prevention treatment regimen. Most clinical trials treat patients with established amyloid deposits in a therapeutic treatment regimen. RESULTS: The first treatment to reduce amyloid and cognitive impairment in mice was immunotherapy. The APP mouse models not only predicted efficacy, but presaged the vascular leakage called ARIA. The recent immunotherapy clinical trials that removed amyloid and slowed cognitive decline confirms the utility of these early APP models when used in therapeutic designs. DISCUSSION: New mouse models of AD pathologies will add to the research armamentarium, but the early models have accurately predicted responses to amyloid therapies in humans.

Inpp5d haplodeficiency alleviates tau pathology in the PS19 mouse model of Tauopathy.

INTRODUCTION: A noncoding variant (rs35349669) within INPP5D, a lipid and protein phosphatase restricted to microglia in the brain, is linked to increased susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease (AD). While Inpp5d is well-studied in amyloid pathology, its role in tau pathology remains unclear. METHODS: PS19 Tauopathy mice were crossed with Inpp5d-haplodeficient (Inpp5d+/-) mice to examine the impact of Inpp5d in tau pathology. RESULTS: Increased INPP5D expression correlated positively with phospho-Tau AT8 in PS19 mice. Inpp5d haplodeficiency mitigated hyperphosphorylated tau levels (AT8, AT180, AT100, and PHF1) and motor deficits in PS19 mice. Transcriptomic analysis revealed an up-regulation of genes associated with immune response and cell migration. DISCUSSION: Our findings define an association between INPP5D expression and tau pathology in PS19 mice. Alleviation in hyperphosphorylated tau, motor deficits, and transcriptomics changes in haplodeficient-Inpp5d PS19 mice indicate that modulation in INPP5D expression may provide therapeutic potential for mitigating tau pathology and improving motor deficits. HIGHLIGHTS: The impact of Inpp5d in the context of tau pathology was studied in the PS19 mouse model. INPP5D expression is associated with tau pathology. Reduced Inpp5d expression in PS19 mice improved motor functions and decreased total and phospho-Tau levels. Inpp5d haplodeficiency in PS19 mice modulates gene expression patterns linked to immune response and cell migration. These data suggest that inhibition of Inpp5d may be a therapeutic approach in tauopathies.

Loss of Inpp5d has disease-relevant and sex-specific effects on glial transcriptomes.

INTRODUCTION: Inpp5d is genetically associated with Alzheimer's disease risk. Loss of Inpp5d alters amyloid pathology in models of amyloidosis. Inpp5d is expressed predominantly in microglia but its function in brain is poorly understood. METHODS: We performed single-cell RNA sequencing to study the effect of Inpp5d loss on wild-type mouse brain transcriptomes. RESULTS: Loss of Inpp5d has sex-specific effects on the brain transcriptome. Affected genes are enriched for multiple neurodegeneration terms. Network analyses reveal a gene co-expression module centered around Inpp5d in female mice. Inpp5d loss alters Pleotrophin (PTN), Prosaposin (PSAP), and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A (VEGFA) signaling probability between cell types. DISCUSSION: Our data suggest that the normal function of Inpp5d is entangled with mechanisms involved in neurodegeneration. We report the effect of Inpp5d loss without pathology and show that this has dramatic effects on gene expression. Our study provides a critical reference for researchers of neurodegeneration, allowing separation of disease-specific changes mediated by Inpp5d in disease from baseline effects of Inpp5d loss. HIGHLIGHTS: Loss of Inpp5d has different effects in male and female mice. Genes dysregulated by Inpp5d loss relate to neurodegeneration. Total loss of Inpp5d in female mice collapses a conserved gene co-expression module. Loss of microglial Inpp5d affects the transcriptome of other cell types.

In vivo validation of late-onset Alzheimer's disease genetic risk factors.

INTRODUCTION: Genome-wide association studies have identified over 70 genetic loci associated with late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD), but few candidate polymorphisms have been functionally assessed for disease relevance and mechanism of action. METHODS: Candidate genetic risk variants were informatically prioritized and individually engineered into a LOAD-sensitized mouse model that carries the AD risk variants APOE ε4/ε4 and Trem2*R47H. The potential disease relevance of each model was assessed by comparing brain transcriptomes measured with the Nanostring Mouse AD Panel at 4 and 12 months of age with human study cohorts. RESULTS: We created new models for 11 coding and loss-of-function risk variants. Transcriptomic effects from multiple genetic variants recapitulated a variety of human gene expression patterns observed in LOAD study cohorts. Specific models matched to emerging molecular LOAD subtypes. DISCUSSION: These results provide an initial functionalization of 11 candidate risk variants and identify potential preclinical models for testing targeted therapeutics. HIGHLIGHTS: A novel approach to validate genetic risk factors for late-onset AD (LOAD) is presented. LOAD risk variants were knocked in to conserved mouse loci. Variant effects were assayed by transcriptional analysis. Risk variants in Abca7, Mthfr, Plcg2, and Sorl1 loci modeled molecular signatures of clinical disease. This approach should generate more translationally relevant animal models.

Characterizing molecular and synaptic signatures in mouse models of late-onset Alzheimer's disease independent of amyloid and tau pathology.

INTRODUCTION: MODEL-AD (Model Organism Development and Evaluation for Late-Onset Alzheimer's Disease) is creating and distributing novel mouse models with humanized, clinically relevant genetic risk factors to capture the trajectory and progression of late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) more accurately. METHODS: We created the LOAD2 model by combining apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4), Trem2*R47H, and humanized amyloid-beta (Aß). Mice were subjected to a control diet or a high-fat/high-sugar diet (LOAD2+HFD). We assessed disease-relevant outcome measures in plasma and brain including neuroinflammation, Aß, neurodegeneration, neuroimaging, and multi-omics. RESULTS: By 18 months, LOAD2+HFD mice exhibited sex-specific neuron loss, elevated insoluble brain Aß42, increased plasma neurofilament light chain (NfL), and altered gene/protein expression related to lipid metabolism and synaptic function. Imaging showed reductions in brain volume and neurovascular uncoupling. Deficits in acquiring touchscreen-based cognitive tasks were observed. DISCUSSION: The comprehensive characterization of LOAD2+HFD mice reveals that this model is important for preclinical studies seeking to understand disease trajectory and progression of LOAD prior to or independent of amyloid plaques and tau tangles. HIGHLIGHTS: By 18 months, unlike control mice (e.g., LOAD2 mice fed a control diet, CD), LOAD2+HFD mice presented subtle but significant loss of neurons in the cortex, elevated levels of insoluble Ab42 in the brain, and increased plasma neurofilament light chain (NfL). Transcriptomics and proteomics showed changes in gene/proteins relating to a variety of disease-relevant processes including lipid metabolism and synaptic function. In vivo imaging revealed an age-dependent reduction in brain region volume (MRI) and neurovascular uncoupling (PET/CT). LOAD2+HFD mice also demonstrated deficits in acquisition of touchscreen-based cognitive tasks.

Advancements in APOE and dementia research: Highlights from the 2023 AAIC Advancements: APOE conference.

INTRODUCTION: The apolipoprotein E gene (APOE) is an established central player in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), with distinct apoE isoforms exerting diverse effects. apoE influences not only amyloid-beta and tau pathologies but also lipid and energy metabolism, neuroinflammation, cerebral vascular health, and sex-dependent disease manifestations. Furthermore, ancestral background may significantly impact the link between APOE and AD, underscoring the need for more inclusive research. METHODS: In 2023, the Alzheimer's Association convened multidisciplinary researchers at the "AAIC Advancements: APOE" conference to discuss various topics, including apoE isoforms and their roles in AD pathogenesis, progress in apoE-targeted therapeutic strategies, updates on disease models and interventions that modulate apoE expression and function. RESULTS: This manuscript presents highlights from the conference and provides an overview of opportunities for further research in the field. DISCUSSION: Understanding apoE's multifaceted roles in AD pathogenesis will help develop targeted interventions for AD and advance the field of AD precision medicine. HIGHLIGHTS: APOE is a central player in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. APOE exerts a numerous effects throughout the brain on amyloid-beta, tau, and other pathways. The AAIC Advancements: APOE conference encouraged discussions and collaborations on understanding the role of APOE.

Control of the temporal development of Alzheimer's disease pathology by the MR1/MAIT cell axis.

BACKGROUND: Neuroinflammation is an important feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Understanding which aspects of the immune system are important in AD may lead to new therapeutic approaches. We study the major histocompatibility complex class I-related immune molecule, MR1, which is recognized by an innate-like T cell population called mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells. METHODS: Having found that MR1 gene expression is elevated in the brain tissue of AD patients by mining the Agora database, we sought to examine the role of the MR1/MAIT cell axis in AD pathology. Brain tissue from AD patients and the 5XFAD mouse model of AD were used to analyze MR1 expression through qPCR, immunofluorescence, and flow cytometry. Furthermore, mice deficient in MR1 and MAIT cells were crossed with the 5XFAD mice to produce a model to study how the loss of this innate immune axis alters AD progression. Moreover, 5XFAD mice were also used to study brain-resident MAIT cells over time. RESULTS: In tissue samples from AD patients and 5XFAD mice, MR1 expression was substantially elevated in the microglia surrounding plaques vs. those that are further away (human AD: P < 0.05; 5XFAD: P < 0.001). In 5XFAD mice lacking the MR1/MAIT cell axis, the development of amyloid-beta plaque pathology occurred at a significantly slower rate than in those mice with MR1 and MAIT cells. Furthermore, in brain tissue from 5XFAD mice, there was a temporal increase in MAIT cell numbers (P < 0.01) and their activation state, the latter determined by detecting an upregulation of both CD69 (P < 0.05) and the interleukin-2 receptor alpha chain (P < 0.05) via flow cytometry. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these data reveal a previously unknown role for the MR1/MAIT cell innate immune axis in AD pathology and its potential utility as a novel therapeutic target.

INPP5D deficiency attenuates amyloid pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

INTRODUCTION: Inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase (INPP5D) is a microglia-enriched lipid phosphatase in the central nervous system. A non-coding variant (rs35349669) in INPP5D increases the risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD), and elevated INPP5D expression is associated with increased plaque deposition. INPP5D negatively regulates signaling via several microglial cell surface receptors, including triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2); however, the impact of INPP5D inhibition on AD pathology remains unclear. METHODS: We used the 5xFAD mouse model of amyloidosis to assess how Inpp5d haplodeficiency regulates amyloid pathogenesis. RESULTS: Inpp5d haplodeficiency perturbs the microglial intracellular signaling pathways regulating the immune response, including phagocytosis and clearing of amyloid beta (Aß). It is important to note that Inpp5d haploinsufficiency leads to the preservation of cognitive function. Spatial transcriptomic analysis revealed that pathways altered by Inpp5d haploinsufficiency are related to synaptic regulation and immune cell activation. CONCLUSION: These data demonstrate that Inpp5d haplodeficiency enhances microglial functions by increasing plaque clearance and preserves cognitive abilities in 5xFAD mice. Inhibition of INPP5D is a potential therapeutic strategy for AD.

The P522R protective variant of PLCG2 promotes the expression of antigen presentation genes by human microglia in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model.

The P522R variant of PLCG2, expressed by microglia, is associated with reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Yet, the impact of this protective mutation on microglial responses to AD pathology remains unknown. Chimeric AD and wild-type mice were generated by transplanting PLCG2-P522R or isogenic wild-type human induced pluripotent stem cell microglia. At 7 months of age, single-cell and bulk RNA sequencing, and histological analyses were performed. The PLCG2-P522R variant induced a significant increase in microglial human leukocyte antigen (HLA) expression and the induction of antigen presentation, chemokine signaling, and T cell proliferation pathways. Examination of immune-intact AD mice further demonstrated that the PLCG2-P522R variant promotes the recruitment of CD8+ T cells to the brain. These data provide the first evidence that the PLCG2-P522R variant increases the capacity of microglia to recruit T cells and present antigens, promoting a microglial transcriptional state that has recently been shown to be reduced in AD patient brains.

INPP5D expression is associated with risk for Alzheimer's disease and induced by plaque-associated microglia.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline, robust microgliosis, neuroinflammation, and neuronal loss. Genome-wide association studies recently highlighted a prominent role for microglia in late-onset AD (LOAD). Specifically, inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase (INPP5D), also known as SHIP1, is selectively expressed in brain microglia and has been reported to be associated with LOAD. Although INPP5D is likely a crucial player in AD pathophysiology, its role in disease onset and progression remains unclear. We performed differential gene expression analysis to investigate INPP5D expression in AD and its association with plaque density and microglial markers using transcriptomic (RNA-Seq) data from the Accelerating Medicines Partnership for Alzheimer's Disease (AMP-AD) cohort. We also performed quantitative real-time PCR, immunoblotting, and immunofluorescence assays to assess INPP5D expression in the 5xFAD amyloid mouse model. Differential gene expression analysis found that INPP5D expression was upregulated in LOAD and positively correlated with amyloid plaque density. In addition, in 5xFAD mice, Inpp5d expression increased as the disease progressed, and selectively in plaque-associated microglia. Increased Inpp5d expression levels in 5xFAD mice were abolished entirely by depleting microglia with the colony-stimulating factor receptor-1 antagonist PLX5622. Our findings show that INPP5D expression increases as AD progresses, predominantly in plaque-associated microglia. Importantly, we provide the first evidence that increased INPP5D expression might be a risk factor in AD, highlighting INPP5D as a potential therapeutic target. Moreover, we have shown that the 5xFAD mouse model is appropriate for studying INPP5D in AD.

Active PSF shaping and adaptive optics enable volumetric localization microscopy through brain sections.

Application of single-molecule switching nanoscopy (SMSN) beyond the coverslip surface poses substantial challenges due to sample-induced aberrations that distort and blur single-molecule emission patterns. We combined active shaping of point spread functions and efficient adaptive optics to enable robust 3D-SMSN imaging within tissues. This development allowed us to image through 30-µm-thick brain sections to visualize and reconstruct the morphology and the nanoscale details of amyloid-ß filaments in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Scientific Advising and Reviewing: On strengthening the bond between the Alzheimer's Association and the scientific community.

From its inception in 1980, advancement of research was one of the primary missions of the Alzheimer's Association (also known as Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders Association) in addition to leading in family caregiver support, better care, public education, and awareness. Over the past 30 years, the Association has grown and expanded its engagement with the scientific community. In the past 10 years, its research budget has more than doubled, greatly increasing the number of research grants funded and the number of strategic projects supported. The leadership and members of the Medical and Scientific Advisory Council recognized that the growth of the Alzheimer's Association and the expanded mission of Medical & Scientific Relations Division necessitated a change in the mission and charge of the external scientific advisory function to the Association.

TREM2 is required for microglial instruction of astrocytic synaptic engulfment in neurodevelopment.

Variants in the microglial receptor TREM2 confer risk for multiple neurodegenerative diseases. However, it remains unknown how this receptor functions on microglia to modulate these diverse neuropathologies. To understand the role of TREM2 on microglia more generally, we investigated changes in microglial function in Trem2-/- mice. We found that loss of TREM2 impairs normal neurodevelopment, resulting in reduced synapse number across the cortex and hippocampus in 1-month-old mice. This reduction in synapse number was not due directly to alterations in interactions between microglia and synapses. Rather, TREM2 was required for microglia to limit synaptic engulfment by astrocytes during development. While these changes were largely normalized later in adulthood, high fat diet administration was sufficient to reinitiate TREM2-dependent modulation of synapse loss. Together, this identifies a novel role for microglia in instructing synaptic pruning by astrocytes to broadly regulate appropriate synaptic refinement, and suggests novel candidate mechanisms for how TREM2 and microglia could influence synaptic loss in brain injury and disease.

Concussion, microvascular injury, and early tauopathy in young athletes after impact head injury and an impact concussion mouse model.

The mechanisms underpinning concussion, traumatic brain injury, and chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and the relationships between these disorders, are poorly understood. We examined post-mortem brains from teenage athletes in the acute-subacute period after mild closed-head impact injury and found astrocytosis, myelinated axonopathy, microvascular injury, perivascular neuroinflammation, and phosphorylated tau protein pathology. To investigate causal mechanisms, we developed a mouse model of lateral closed-head impact injury that uses momentum transfer to induce traumatic head acceleration. Unanaesthetized mice subjected to unilateral impact exhibited abrupt onset, transient course, and rapid resolution of a concussion-like syndrome characterized by altered arousal, contralateral hemiparesis, truncal ataxia, locomotor and balance impairments, and neurobehavioural deficits. Experimental impact injury was associated with axonopathy, blood-brain barrier disruption, astrocytosis, microgliosis (with activation of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells, TREM2), monocyte infiltration, and phosphorylated tauopathy in cerebral cortex ipsilateral and subjacent to impact. Phosphorylated tauopathy was detected in ipsilateral axons by 24 h, bilateral axons and soma by 2 weeks, and distant cortex bilaterally at 5.5 months post-injury. Impact pathologies co-localized with serum albumin extravasation in the brain that was diagnostically detectable in living mice by dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI. These pathologies were also accompanied by early, persistent, and bilateral impairment in axonal conduction velocity in the hippocampus and defective long-term potentiation of synaptic neurotransmission in the medial prefrontal cortex, brain regions distant from acute brain injury. Surprisingly, acute neurobehavioural deficits at the time of injury did not correlate with blood-brain barrier disruption, microgliosis, neuroinflammation, phosphorylated tauopathy, or electrophysiological dysfunction. Furthermore, concussion-like deficits were observed after impact injury, but not after blast exposure under experimental conditions matched for head kinematics. Computational modelling showed that impact injury generated focal point loading on the head and seven-fold greater peak shear stress in the brain compared to blast exposure. Moreover, intracerebral shear stress peaked before onset of gross head motion. By comparison, blast induced distributed force loading on the head and diffuse, lower magnitude shear stress in the brain. We conclude that force loading mechanics at the time of injury shape acute neurobehavioural responses, structural brain damage, and neuropathological sequelae triggered by neurotrauma. These results indicate that closed-head impact injuries, independent of concussive signs, can induce traumatic brain injury as well as early pathologies and functional sequelae associated with chronic traumatic encephalopathy. These results also shed light on the origins of concussion and relationship to traumatic brain injury and its aftermath.awx350media15713427811001.

Disease Progression-Dependent Effects of TREM2 Deficiency in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease.

Neuroinflammation is an important contributor to Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis, as underscored by the recent identification of immune-related genetic risk factors for AD, including coding variants in the gene TREM2 (triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2). Understanding TREM2 function promises to provide important insights into how neuroinflammation contributes to AD pathology. However, studies so far have produced seemingly conflicting results, with reports that amyloid pathology can be both decreased and increased in TREM2-deficient AD mouse models. In this study, we unify these previous findings by demonstrating that TREM2 deficiency ameliorates amyloid pathology early, but exacerbates it late in disease progression in the APPPS1-21 mouse model of AD. We also demonstrate that TREM2 deficiency decreases plaque-associated myeloid cell accumulation by reducing cell proliferation, specifically late in pathology. In addition, TREM2 deficiency reduces myeloid cell internalization of amyloid throughout pathology, but decreases inflammation-related gene transcript levels selectively late in disease progression. Together, these results suggest that TREM2 plays distinct functional roles at different stages in AD pathology. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder and there are currently no effective treatments that modify disease progression. However, the recent identification of genetic risk factors for AD promises to provide new insight into AD biology and possible new therapeutic targets. Among these risk factors, variants in the gene TREM2 (triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2) confer greatly elevated risk for developing the disease. We demonstrate that TREM2 deficiency has opposing effects on AD-related pathologies at early and late stages of disease progression, unifying previous work in the field. In addition, we examine how TREM2 affects the function of the brain immune cell populations in which it is expressed throughout disease progression to understand possible mechanisms underlying its differential impacts on pathology.

Laquinimod attenuates inflammation by modulating macrophage functions in traumatic brain injury mouse model.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a critical public health and socio-economic problem worldwide. A growing body of evidence supports the involvement of inflammatory events in TBI. It has been reported that resident microglia and infiltrating monocytes promote an inflammatory reaction that leads to neuronal death and eventually behavioral and cognitive impairment. Currently, there is no effective treatment for TBI and the development of new therapeutic strategies is a scientific goal of highest priority. Laquinimod, an orally administered neuroimmunomodulator initially developed for the treatment of multiple sclerosis, might be a promising neuroprotective therapy for TBI. Herein, we aim to investigate the hypothesis that laquinimod will reduce the central nervous system (CNS) damage caused by TBI. METHODS: To test our hypothesis, Ccr2rfp/+ Cx3cr1 gfp/+ mice were submitted to a moderate TBI induced by fluid percussion. Sham controls were submitted only to craniotomy. Mice were treated daily by oral gavage with laquinimod (25 mg/kg) 7 days before and 3 days after TBI. The brains of mice treated or not treated with laquinimod were collected at 3 and 120 days post injury, and brain morphological changes, axonal injury, and neurogenesis were evaluated by microscopy analysis. We also isolated microglia from infiltrating monocytes, and the expression of immune gene mRNAs were analyzed by employing a quantitative NanoString nCounter technique. RESULTS: Laquinimod prevented ventricle enlargement caused by TBI in the long term. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed decreased axonal damage and restored neurogenesis in the laquinimod-treated TBI group at early stage (3 days post injury). Notably, laquinimod inhibited the monocytes infiltration to the brain. Hierarchial clustering demonstrated that the microglial gene expression from the TBI group treated with laquinimod resembles the sham group more than the TBI-water control group. CONCLUSIONS: Administration of laquinimod reduced lesion volume and axonal damage and restored neurogenesis after TBI. Laquinimod might be a potential therapy strategy to improve TBI long-term prognosis.

Genetically enhancing the expression of chemokine domain of CX3CL1 fails to prevent tau pathology in mouse models of tauopathy.

BACKGROUND: Fractalkine (CX3CL1) and its receptor (CX3CR1) play an important role in regulating microglial function. We have previously shown that Cx3cr1 deficiency exacerbated tau pathology and led to cognitive impairment. However, it is still unclear if the chemokine domain of the ligand CX3CL1 is essential in regulating neuronal tau pathology. METHODS: We used transgenic mice lacking endogenous Cx3cl1 (Cx3cl1-/-) and expressing only obligatory soluble form (with only chemokine domain) and lacking the mucin stalk of CX3CL1 (referred to as Cx3cl1105Δ mice) to assess tau pathology and behavioral function in both lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and genetic (hTau) mouse models of tauopathy. RESULTS: First, increased basal tau levels accompanied microglial activation in Cx3cl1105Δ mice compared to control groups. Second, increased CD45+ and F4/80+ neuroinflammation and tau phosphorylation were observed in LPS, hTau/Cx3cl1-/-, and hTau/Cx3cl1105Δ mouse models of tau pathology, which correlated with impaired spatial learning. Finally, microglial cell surface expression of CX3CR1 was reduced in Cx3cl1105Δ mice, suggesting enhanced fractalkine receptor internalization (mimicking Cx3cr1 deletion), which likely contributes to the elevated tau pathology. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, our data suggest that overexpression of only chemokine domain of CX3CL1 does not protect against tau pathology.