A Delphi Approach to Define Lucid Episodes in People Living With Dementia.

PURPOSE: Lucid episodes (LEs: unexpected episodes of spontaneous, meaningful, and relevant communication or behavior) in Alzheimer disease and related dementias are a new area of scientific inquiry that lacks clinical consensus and require more conceptual attention. METHODS: We aimed to measure consensus from an expert group on: (1) potential medical or clinical explanations for LEs; (2) necessary medical and clinical context to LEs; and (3) interpretation of LEs. PATIENTS: We convened 13 experts from different disciplines (neurology, psychiatry, psychology, pharmacy, palliative care, hospice, nursing, social work, primary care, geriatrics, and professional home caregivers) to identify elements of LEs. RESULTS: Experts provided a range of opinions on medical and clinical explanations and questions to understand LEs. Consensus on LEs when presented with clinical vignettes was not reached. Panelists highlighted key medical and contextual factors needed to make a definitive judgement about LEs. CONCLUSION: There is variability in how LEs are interpreted by clinical experts, which complicates the identification of LEs in Alzheimer disease and related dementias.

A Novel Approach to Monitoring Cognitive Adverse Events for Interventional Studies Involving Advanced Dementia Patients: Insights From the Electroconvulsive Therapy for Agitation in Dementia Study.

OBJECTIVE: To develop an individualized method for detecting cognitive adverse events (CAEs) in the context of an ongoing trial of electroconvulsive therapy for refractory agitation and aggression for advanced dementia (ECT-AD study). METHODS: Literature search aimed at identifying (a) cognitive measures appropriate for patients with advanced dementia, (b) functional scales to use as a proxy for cognitive status in patients with floor effects on baseline cognitive testing, and (c) statistical approaches for defining a CAE, to develop CAEs monitoring plan specifically for the ECT-AD study. RESULTS: Using the Severe Impairment Battery-8 (SIB-8), baseline floor effects are defined as a score of ≤5/16. For patients without floor effects, a decline of ≥6 points is considered a CAE. For patients with floor effects, a decline of ≥30 points from baseline on the Barthel Index is considered a CAE. These values were derived using the standard deviation index (SDI) approach to measuring reliable change. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed plan accounts for practical and statistical challenges in detecting CAEs in patients with advanced dementia. While this protocol was developed in the context of the ECT-AD study, the general approach can potentially be applied to other interventional neuropsychiatric studies that carry the risk of CAEs in patients with advanced dementia.

Agitation in cognitive disorders: Progress in the International Psychogeriatric Association consensus clinical and research definition.

BACKGROUND: The International Psychogeriatric Association (IPA) published a provisional consensus definition of agitation in cognitive disorders in 2015. As proposed by the original work group, we summarize the use and validation of criteria in order to remove "provisional" from the definition. METHODS: This report summarizes information from the academic literature, research resources, clinical guidelines, expert surveys, and patient and family advocates on the experience of use of the IPA definition. The information was reviewed by a working group of topic experts to create a finalized definition. RESULTS: We present a final definition which closely resembles the provisional definition with modifications to address special circumstances. We also summarize the development of tools for diagnosis and assessment of agitation and propose strategies for dissemination and integration into precision diagnosis and agitation interventions. CONCLUSION: The IPA definition of agitation captures a common and important entity that is recognized by many stakeholders. Dissemination of the definition will permit broader detection and can advance research and best practices for care of patients with agitation.

Reduction and prevention of agitation in persons with neurocognitive disorders: an international psychogeriatric association consensus algorithm.

OBJECTIVES: To develop an agitation reduction and prevention algorithm is intended to guide implementation of the definition of agitation developed by the International Psychogeriatric Association (IPA). DESIGN: Review of literature on treatment guidelines and recommended algorithms; algorithm development through reiterative integration of research information and expert opinion. SETTING: IPA Agitation Workgroup. PARTICIPANTS: IPA panel of international experts on agitation. INTERVENTION: Integration of available information into a comprehensive algorithm. MEASUREMENTS: None. RESULTS: The IPA Agitation Work Group recommends the Investigate, Plan, and Act (IPA) approach to agitation reduction and prevention. A thorough investigation of the behavior is followed by planning and acting with an emphasis on shared decision-making; the success of the plan is evaluated and adjusted as needed. The process is repeated until agitation is reduced to an acceptable level and prevention of recurrence is optimized. Psychosocial interventions are part of every plan and are continued throughout the process. Pharmacologic interventions are organized into panels of choices for nocturnal/circadian agitation; mild-moderate agitation or agitation with prominent mood features; moderate-severe agitation; and severe agitation with threatened harm to the patient or others. Therapeutic alternatives are presented for each panel. The occurrence of agitation in a variety of venues-home, nursing home, emergency department, hospice-and adjustments to the therapeutic approach are presented. CONCLUSIONS: The IPA definition of agitation is operationalized into an agitation management algorithm that emphasizes the integration of psychosocial and pharmacologic interventions, reiterative assessment of response to treatment, adjustment of therapeutic approaches to reflect the clinical situation, and shared decision-making.

Efficacy and safety of transcranial magnetic stimulation on cognition in mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's disease, Alzheimer's disease-related dementias, and other cognitive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: We aim to analyze the efficacy and safety of TMS on cognition in mild cognitive impairment (MCI), Alzheimer's disease (AD), AD-related dementias, and nondementia conditions with comorbid cognitive impairment. DESIGN: Systematic review, Meta-Analysis. SETTING: We searched MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane database, APA PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Scopus from January 1, 2000, to February 9, 2023. PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS: RCTs, open-label, and case series studies reporting cognitive outcomes following TMS intervention were included. MEASUREMENT: Cognitive and safety outcomes were measured. Cochrane Risk of Bias for RCTs and MINORS (Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies) criteria were used to evaluate study quality. This study was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42022326423). RESULTS: The systematic review included 143 studies (n = 5,800 participants) worldwide, encompassing 94 RCTs, 43 open-label prospective, 3 open-label retrospective, and 3 case series. The meta-analysis included 25 RCTs in MCI and AD. Collectively, these studies provide evidence of improved global and specific cognitive measures with TMS across diagnostic groups. Only 2 studies (among 143) reported 4 adverse events of seizures: 3 were deemed TMS unrelated and another resolved with coil repositioning. Meta-analysis showed large effect sizes on global cognition (Mini-Mental State Examination (SMD = 0.80 [0.26, 1.33], p = 0.003), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (SMD = 0.85 [0.26, 1.44], p = 0.005), Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale (SMD = -0.96 [-1.32, -0.60], p < 0.001)) in MCI and AD, although with significant heterogeneity. CONCLUSION: The reviewed studies provide favorable evidence of improved cognition with TMS across all groups with cognitive impairment. TMS was safe and well tolerated with infrequent serious adverse events.

Developing and describing a typology of lucid episodes among people with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias.

INTRODUCTION: This study examined lucid episodes among people living with late-stage Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (PLWD) and then developed a typology of these episodes to help characterize them. METHODS: Family caregivers of PLWD provided information about witnessed episodes, including proximity to death, cognitive status, duration, communication quality, and circumstances prior to lucid episodes on up to two episodes (caregiver N = 151; episode N = 279). Latent class analysis was used to classify and characterize empirically distinct clusters of lucid episodes. RESULTS: Four lucid episode types were identified. The most common type occurred during visits with family and among PLWD who lived > 6 months after the episode. The least common type coincided with family visits and occurred within 7 days of the PLWD's death. DISCUSSION: Findings suggest that multiple types of lucid episodes exist; not all signal impending death; and some, but not all, are precipitated by external stimuli.

Navigating Gender Identity and Dementia in Transgender Older Adults: Ethical Challenges and Patient-Centered Care.

OBJECTIVES: As transgender individuals age, they are at risk for neurocognitive disorders which pose not only medical but also bioethical questions. We present a case study of a transgender older adult with dementia who experienced changes in gender identity and explore the bioethical implications of identity over time, including end-of-life care. METHODS: We reviewed clinical notes and relevant medical history to describe the transition and detransition process and examined ethical frameworks related to autonomy, psychological continuity, and transgender care. RESULTS: The individual transitioned as a transgender woman in mid-life but detransitioned shortly before being diagnosed with dementia. This case highlighted conflicts between precedent autonomy and current gender identity in the context of neurocognitive decline and end-of-life care. CONCLUSIONS: The case underscores the complexity of managing gender identity in transgender older adults with dementia, emphasizing the need for personalized and ethically sound care plans. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Clinicians should be vigilant about the impact of neurocognitive disorders on gender identity, balancing respect for patients' prior decisions with their current values, and develop personalized end-of-life care plans that honor the evolving identities and preferences of transgender individuals with dementia.

Multisite ALLFTD study modeling progressive empathy loss from the earliest stages of behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia.

INTRODUCTION: Empathy relies on fronto-cingular and temporal networks that are selectively vulnerable in behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD). This study modeled when in the disease process empathy changes begin, and how they progress. METHODS: Four hundred thirty-one individuals with asymptomatic genetic FTD (n = 114), genetic and sporadic bvFTD (n = 317), and 163 asymptomatic non-carrier controls were enrolled. In sub-samples, we investigated empathy measured by the informant-based Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) at each disease stage and over time (n = 91), and its correspondence to underlying atrophy (n = 51). RESULTS: Empathic concern (estimate = 4.38, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.79, 5.97; p < 0.001) and perspective taking (estimate = 5.64, 95% CI = 3.81, 7.48; p < 0.001) scores declined between the asymptomatic and very mild symptomatic stages regardless of pathogenic variant status. More rapid loss of empathy corresponded with subcortical atrophy. DISCUSSION: Loss of empathy is an early and progressive symptom of bvFTD that is measurable by IRI informant ratings and can be used to monitor behavior in neuropsychiatry practice and treatment trials.

The Relationship of Mentorship to Career Outcomes in Academic Psychiatry and Psychology: a Needs Assessment.

OBJECTIVE: Faculty development is designed to facilitate career advancement of junior faculty but there is limited empirical evidence on how to design an effective program. METHODS: As a first step in the design of an effective program, a needs assessment was conducted. Participants were faculty members of an academic psychiatry department. Participants completed a quantitative and qualitative survey assessing their experience with mentors, academic self-efficacy, career burnout and satisfaction, academic productivity, and perceived barriers to scholarship. RESULTS: Eighty percent (N = 104) of eligible faculty members completed the study survey (54% female; 81% White, 10% underrepresented in medicine). Less than half of the respondents (44%) reported having a current mentor. Number of mentors (r = .33; p < .01), mentorship meetings (r = .35; p < .01), and mentorship quality (r = .33; p < .01) were significantly correlated to a standardized measure of academic self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was significantly associated with academic productivity (r = .44; p < .001) and career satisfaction (r = .29; p < .05). The top barriers to scholarship productivity were time and lack of access to resources. Faculty members without a mentor endorsed more barriers to scholarship (p < .001) than those with a mentor. Themes that emerged from the qualitative data suggest that mentorship supports career advancement through coaching and professional development, invitations to collaborate and resource share, networking, and active teaching. CONCLUSION: Based on the relationship of mentoring to career outcomes, a robust faculty development program needs a formal academic mentorship program to improve career satisfaction and academic productivity.

Distal radius fractures and risk of incident neurocognitive disorders in older adults: a retrospective cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: Distal radius fractures (DRF) are associated with increased risk of subsequent fractures and physical decline in older adults. This study aims to evaluate the risk cognitive decline following DRF and potential for timely screening and intervention. METHODS: A cohort of 1046 individuals 50-75 years of age with DRF were identified between 1995 and 2015 (81.5% female; mean age 62.5 [± 7.1] years). A control group (N = 1044) without history of DRF was matched by age, sex, and fracture date (i.e., index). The incidence of neurocognitive disorders (NCD) in relation to DRF/index was determined. Group comparisons were adjusted by age and comorbidity measured by the Elixhauser index. RESULTS: The DRF group had a greater incidence of NCD compared to the control group (11.3% vs. 8.2%) with a 56% greater relative risk (HR = 1.56, 95% Cl: 1.18, 2.07; p = 0.002) after adjusting for age and comorbidity. For every 10-year age increase, the DRF group was over three times more likely to develop a NCD (HR = 3.23, 95% Cl: 2.57, 4.04; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: DRF in adults ages 50 to 75 are associated with increased risk of developing neurocognitive disorders. DRF may represent a sentinel opportunity for cognitive screening and early intervention. Distal radius fractures (DRF) have been associated with greater risk of future fractures and physical decline. This study reports that DRF are also associated with greater risk of developing neurocognitive disorders in older adults. Timely intervention may improve early recognition and long-term outcomes for older adults at risk of cognitive decline.

Identifying Delirium in Persons With Moderate or Severe Dementia: Review of Challenges and an Illustrative Approach.

Delirium and dementia are common causes of cognitive impairment among older adults, which often coexist. Delirium is associated with poor clinical outcomes, and is more frequent and more severe in patients with dementia. Identifying delirium in the presence of dementia, also described as delirium superimposed on dementia (DSD), is particularly challenging, as symptoms of delirium such as inattention, cognitive dysfunction, and altered level of consciousness, are also features of dementia. Because DSD is associated with poorer clinical outcomes than dementia alone, detecting delirium is important for reducing morbidity and mortality in this population. We review a number of delirium screening instruments that have shown promise for use in DSD, including the 4-DSD, combined Six Item Cognitive Impairment Test (6-CIT) and 4 'A's Test (4AT), Confusion Assessment Method (CAM), and the combined UB2 and 3D-CAM (UB-CAM). Each has advantages and disadvantages. We then describe the operationalization of a CAM-based approach in a current ECT in dementia project as an example of modifying an existing instrument for patients with moderate to severe dementia. Ultimately, any instrument modified will need to be validated against a standard clinical reference, in order to fully establish its sensitivity and specificity in the moderate to severe dementia population. Future work is greatly needed to advance the challenging area of accurate identification of delirium in moderate or severe dementia.

Simulated Electroconvulsive Therapy: A Novel Approach to a Control Group in Clinical Trials.

OBJECTIVES: Agitation is the most common behavioral symptom of Alzheimer disease (AD) affecting approximately 40% to 60% of the AD population, yet there are no Food and Drug Administration-approved therapies for the myriad of behavioral or psychological symptoms of dementia. There is growing evidence from naturalistic studies that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a safe and effective treatment for agitation in AD patients who are refractory to pharmacotherapy and behavioral interventions. Despite the existing evidence, ECT remains underused because of stigma, lack of education, and concerns regarding adverse cognitive effects. Randomized controlled clinical trials of ECT are an opportunity to provide high-quality evidence of ECT as a safe and efficacious treatment for agitation in the AD population. We describe the methods for the Electroconvulsive Therapy in Alzheimer's Dementia study, which uses a novel, simulated ECT (S-ECT) control group to conduct a single-blind efficacy study of ECT for the treatment of agitation and aggression in individuals with moderate to severe AD. METHODS: We discuss the rationale, study design, methodology, ethical and practical challenges, and management strategies in using an S-ECT group as the comparator arm in this randomized controlled trial of ECT in AD-related treatment refractory agitation and aggression. CONCLUSIONS: Validation of the safety and efficacy of ECT in patients with advanced AD with refractory agitation and aggression is necessary. This can be accomplished through creative formulation of S-ECT groups that effectively maintain the blind while providing scientific integrity.

The contribution of behavioral features to caregiver burden in FTLD spectrum disorders.

INTRODUCTION: Caregivers of patients with frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) spectrum disorders experience tremendous burden, which has been associated with the neuropsychiatric and behavioral features of the disorders. METHODS: In a sample of 558 participants with FTLD spectrum disorders, we performed multiple-variable regressions to identify the behavioral features that were most strongly associated with caregiver burden, as measured by the Zarit Burden Interview, at each stage of disease. RESULTS: Apathy and disinhibition, as rated by both clinicians and caregivers, as well as clinician-rated psychosis, showed the strongest associations with caregiver burden, a pattern that was consistent when participants were separated cross-sectionally by disease stage. In addition, behavioral features appeared to contribute most to caregiver burden in patients with early dementia. DISCUSSION: Caregivers should be provided with early education on the management of the behavioral features of FTLD spectrum disorders. Interventions targeting apathy, disinhibition, and psychosis may be most useful to reduce caregiver burden.

A feasibility study of virtual group therapy to improve quality of life of cancer caregivers.

BACKGROUND: Cancer caregiving can negatively impact the quality of life (QOL) of the caregiver. In-person interventions for improving coping skills have been shown to be effective in improving QOL for caregivers. OBJECTIVES: This pilot project explored the feasibility and acceptability of a virtual group therapy intervention to improve short-term cancer caregiver QOL. METHODS: Caregivers of cancer patients were enrolled in a structured multidisciplinary intervention of eight virtual group therapy sessions provided over four weeks between September 9, 2013 and November 17, 2014. Group sessions were led by trained facilitators and included components of physical therapy, occupational therapy, psychosocial education, cognitive-behavioral intervention, supportive discussion, spiritual reflection, and mindfulness therapy. Feasibility was based on acceptable number of recruited participants per session; acceptability was defined using attendance and 80% QOL completion rates. QOL domains and symptom burden were assessed using validated single items. RESULTS: The 20 cancer caregivers who enrolled were mostly older (80% were ≥ 65 years), female (76.5%), married to the patient (88.2%), Caucasian (100%), and highly educated (100%). 60% attended one to five sessions, 15% attended six to eight sessions, and 25% attended no sessions. Thirty percent completed pre- and post- intervention ratings of QOL items. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS: Findings suggested that a virtual group therapy intervention is feasible for the cancer caregivers in this study. Although not statistically significant, the caregivers reported higher QOL and less symptom burden in multiple domains after participating in the virtual group therapy intervention.

Emotional Resilience of Older Adults during COVID-19: A Systematic Review of Studies of Stress and Well-Being.

OBJECTIVES: To examine post-traumatic stress, depression, anxiety, and well-being in older adults under quarantine. METHODS: A systematic review of CINAHL, Ovid EBM Reviews, Ovid Embase, Ovid Medline, Ovid PsycINFO, Scopus, and Web of Science from 2000 to 2020 was conducted. Keywords included coronavirus, epidemic, quarantine, stress, mental health, and similar terms. Included studies enrolled participants under quarantine, quantitatively measured mental health or well-being, and characterized outcomes by age. RESULTS: Of 894 initial results, 20 studies met the criteria and were included. Studies comprise 106,553 participants from eight countries, ages 6-100, two epidemics (COVID-19, SARS), and 27 assessment tools. One study found greater distress in older adults relative to younger adults, one found no significant differences, and 18 found lower negative outcomes in older participants in at least one metric. CONCLUSIONS: Older adults in this review generally have lower stress and less negative emotions under quarantine than younger adults. It is unknown how this compares to pre-pandemic measures. More representative and longitudinal studies are needed to measure the impact of quarantine on the mental health of older adults. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: As existing scales may not capture the full extent of pandemic psychological effects on older adults, clinicians must vigilantly monitor older adults' mental health.

Reconnecting: Strategies for Supporting Isolated Older Adults during COVID-19 through Tele-palliative Care.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in unprecedented levels of social isolation which has negatively impacted older patients in particular on multiple levels. We present a case of an older patient with several complex psychosocial issues who was hospitalized and died from COVID-19. The social isolation required during the pandemic compounded patient and family stressors and diminished the patient's access to clinicians and to his usual support network and coping strategies. We describe how technology and tele-palliative care were utilized to reconnect the patient with clinicians and family and to provide clinical care that enhanced coping skills and support. Using telemedicine to restructure the approach to care was crucial in improving multiple domains of care and can be considered a resource for caring for older adults, especially during the challenging times brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic.

End-of-life care in schizophrenia: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: Schizophrenia is a severe and persistent mental illness with profound effects on patients, families, and communities. It causes immense suffering on personal, emotional, and socioeconomic levels. Individuals with schizophrenia have poorer health outcomes and die 10-20 years younger than the general population. Economic costs associated with schizophrenia are substantial and comprise 2.5% of healthcare expenditures worldwide. Despite psychosocioeconomic impacts, individuals with schizophrenia are subject to inequitable care, particularly at end of life. A systematic review was conducted to examine disparities in end-of-life care in schizophrenia and identify factors that can be targeted to enhance end-of-life care in this vulnerable population. DESIGN: A comprehensive search was conducted using the databases Ovid MEDLINE(R), Ovid EMBASE, Ovid PsycINFO, Ovid Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Ovid Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Scopus from 2008-2018. Keywords included schizophrenia, palliative, end-of-life, and hospice. Two authors independently reviewed titles and abstracts; disagreements were resolved by consensus. RESULTS: The search identified 123 articles; 33 met criteria: 13 case reports, 12 retrospective studies, 5 literature reviews, and 3 prospective studies. Articles were divided into major themes including healthcare disparities, ethics, and palliative care. Palliative care was the most frequent theme comprising >50% of the articles, and there was considerable thematic overlap with ethics and palliative care. Almost half the articles (45%) were related to schizophrenia and comorbid cancer. CONCLUSIONS: Increased awareness of potential healthcare disparities in this population, creative approaches in multidisciplinary care, and provision of adequate palliative services and resources can enhance end-of-life care in schizophrenia.

Electroconvulsive Therapy Practice Changes in Older Individuals Due to COVID-19: Expert Consensus Statement.

The ubiquitous coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has required healthcare providers across all disciplines to rapidly adapt to public health guidelines to reduce risk while maintaining quality of care. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), which involves an aerosol-generating procedure from manual ventilation with a bag mask valve while under anesthesia, has undergone drastic practice changes in order to minimize disruption of treatment in the midst of COVID-19. In this paper, we provide a consensus statement on the clinical practice changes in ECT specific to older adults based on expert group discussions of ECT practitioners across the country and a systematic review of the literature. There is a universal consensus that ECT is an essential treatment of severe mental illness. In addition, there is a clear consensus on what modifications are imperative to ensure continued delivery of ECT in a manner that is safe for patients and staff, while maintaining the viability of ECT services. Approaches to modifications in ECT to address infection control, altered ECT procedures, and adjusting ECT operations are almost uniform across the globe. With modified ECT procedures, it is possible to continue to meet the needs of older patients while mitigating risk of transmission to this vulnerable population.

Quality of life and caregiver burden in familial frontotemporal lobar degeneration: Analyses of symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals within the LEFFTDS cohort.

OBJECTIVE: The Longitudinal Evaluation of Familial Frontotemporal Dementia Subjects evaluates familial frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) kindreds with MAPT, GRN, or C9orf72 mutations. Objectives were to examine whether health-related quality of life (HRQoL) correlates with clinical symptoms and caregiver burden, and whether self-rated and informant-rated HRQoL would correlate with each other. METHODS: Individuals were classified using the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR® ) Scale plus National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center (NACC) FTLD. HRQoL was measured with DEMQOL and DEMQOL-proxy; caregiver burden with the Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI). For analysis, Pearson correlations and weighted kappa statistics were calculated. RESULTS: The cohort of 312 individuals included symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals. CDR® plus NACC FTLD was negatively correlated with DEMQOL (r = -0.20, P = .001), as were ZBI and DEMQOL (r = -0.22, P = .0009). There was fair agreement between subject and informant DEMQOL (κ = 0.36, P <.0001). CONCLUSION: Lower HRQoL was associated with higher cognitive/behavior impairment and higher caregiver burden. These findings demonstrate the negative impact of FTLD on individuals and caregivers.

Geriatric Telepsychiatry: Systematic Review and Policy Considerations.

Telemental health (TMH) for older patients has the potential to increase access to geriatric specialists, reduce travel times for patients and providers, and reduce ever growing healthcare costs. This systematic review article examines the literature regarding psychiatric assessment and treatment via telemedicine for geriatric patients. English language literature was searched using Ovid Medline, PubMed, and PsycINFO with search terms including telemedicine, telemental health, aging, and dementia. Abstracts were reviewed for relevance based on inclusion criteria. Multiple study types were reviewed, including open label, qualitative and randomized controlled trial study designs. Data was compiled regarding participants, study intervention, and outcomes. 76 articles were included. TMH was shown to be feasible and well accepted in the areas of inpatient and nursing home consultation, cognitive testing, dementia diagnosis and treatment, depression in integrated and collaborative care models, and psychotherapy. There is limited data on cost-effectiveness of TMH in the elderly. This article will discuss the current barriers to broader implementation of telemedicine for geriatric patients including reimbursement from the Medicare program. Medicare reimbursement for telemedicine is limited to rural areas, which does not allow for the widespread development of telemedicine programs. All Medicare beneficiaries would benefit from increased access to telemedicine services, not only those living in rural areas. As many elderly and disabled individuals have mobility problems, home-based telemedicine services should also be made available. There are efforts in Congress to expand the coverage of these services under Medicare, but strong advocacy will be needed to ensure these efforts are successful.