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Networks of optical clocks find applications in precise navigation1,2, in efforts to redefine the fundamental unit of the 'second'3-6 and in gravitational tests7. As the frequency instability for state-of-the-art optical clocks has reached the 10-19 level8,9, the vision of a global-scale optical network that achieves comparable performances requires the dissemination of time and frequency over a long-distance free-space link with a similar instability of 10-19. However, previous attempts at free-space dissemination of time and frequency at high precision did not extend beyond dozens of kilometres10,11. Here we report time-frequency dissemination with an offset of 6.3 × 10-20 ± 3.4 × 10-19 and an instability of less than 4 × 10-19 at 10,000 s through a free-space link of 113 km. Key technologies essential to this achievement include the deployment of high-power frequency combs, high-stability and high-efficiency optical transceiver systems and efficient linear optical sampling. We observe that the stability we have reached is retained for channel losses up to 89 dB. The technique we report can not only be directly used in ground-based applications, but could also lay the groundwork for future satellite time-frequency dissemination.
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Quantum key distribution (QKD)1,2 has the potential to enable secure communication and information transfer3. In the laboratory, the feasibility of point-to-point QKD is evident from the early proof-of-concept demonstration in the laboratory over 32 centimetres4; this distance was later extended to the 100-kilometre scale5,6 with decoy-state QKD and more recently to the 500-kilometre scale7-10 with measurement-device-independent QKD. Several small-scale QKD networks have also been tested outside the laboratory11-14. However, a global QKD network requires a practically (not just theoretically) secure and reliable QKD network that can be used by a large number of users distributed over a wide area15. Quantum repeaters16,17 could in principle provide a viable option for such a global network, but they cannot be deployed using current technology18. Here we demonstrate an integrated space-to-ground quantum communication network that combines a large-scale fibre network of more than 700 fibre QKD links and two high-speed satellite-to-ground free-space QKD links. Using a trusted relay structure, the fibre network on the ground covers more than 2,000 kilometres, provides practical security against the imperfections of realistic devices, and maintains long-term reliability and stability. The satellite-to-ground QKD achieves an average secret-key rate of 47.8 kilobits per second for a typical satellite pass-more than 40 times higher than achieved previously. Moreover, its channel loss is comparable to that between a geostationary satellite and the ground, making the construction of more versatile and ultralong quantum links via geosynchronous satellites feasible. Finally, by integrating the fibre and free-space QKD links, the QKD network is extended to a remote node more than 2,600 kilometres away, enabling any user in the network to communicate with any other, up to a total distance of 4,600 kilometres.
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Quantum key distribution (QKD)1-3 is a theoretically secure way of sharing secret keys between remote users. It has been demonstrated in a laboratory over a coiled optical fibre up to 404 kilometres long4-7. In the field, point-to-point QKD has been achieved from a satellite to a ground station up to 1,200 kilometres away8-10. However, real-world QKD-based cryptography targets physically separated users on the Earth, for which the maximum distance has been about 100 kilometres11,12. The use of trusted relays can extend these distances from across a typical metropolitan area13-16 to intercity17 and even intercontinental distances18. However, relays pose security risks, which can be avoided by using entanglement-based QKD, which has inherent source-independent security19,20. Long-distance entanglement distribution can be realized using quantum repeaters21, but the related technology is still immature for practical implementations22. The obvious alternative for extending the range of quantum communication without compromising its security is satellite-based QKD, but so far satellite-based entanglement distribution has not been efficient23 enough to support QKD. Here we demonstrate entanglement-based QKD between two ground stations separated by 1,120 kilometres at a finite secret-key rate of 0.12 bits per second, without the need for trusted relays. Entangled photon pairs were distributed via two bidirectional downlinks from the Micius satellite to two ground observatories in Delingha and Nanshan in China. The development of a high-efficiency telescope and follow-up optics crucially improved the link efficiency. The generated keys are secure for realistic devices, because our ground receivers were carefully designed to guarantee fair sampling and immunity to all known side channels24,25. Our method not only increases the secure distance on the ground tenfold but also increases the practical security of QKD to an unprecedented level.
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Silicon avalanche photodiode (APD) single-photon detectors in space are continuously affected by radiation, which gradually degrades their dark count performance. From August 2016 to June 2023, we conducted approximately seven years (2507 days) of in-orbit monitoring of the dark count performance of APD single-photon detectors on the Micius Quantum Science Experimental Satellite. The results showed that due to radiation effects, the dark count growth rate was approximately 6.79 cps/day @ -24 °C and 0.37 cps/day @ -55 °C, with a significant suppression effect on radiation-induced dark counts at lower operating temperature. Based on the proposed radiation damage induced dark count annealing model, simulations were conducted for the in-orbit dark counts of the detector, the simulation results are consistent with in-orbit test data. In May 2022, four of these detectors underwent a cumulative 5.7 hours high-temperature annealing test at 76 °C, dark count rate shows no measurable changes, consistent with annealing model. As of now, these ten APD single-photon detectors on the Micius Quantum Science Experimental Satellite have been in operation for approximately 2507 days and are still functioning properly, providing valuable experience for the future long-term space applications of silicon APD single-photon detectors.
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The space time frequency transfer plays a crucial role in applications such as space optical clock networks, navigation, satellite ranging, and space quantum communication. Here, we propose a high-precision space time frequency transfer and time synchronization scheme based on a simple intensity modulation/direct detection (IM/DD) laser communication system, which occupies a communication bandwidth of approximately 0.2%. Furthermore, utilizing an optical-frequency comb time frequency transfer system as an out-of-loop reference, experimental verification was conducted on a 113â km horizontal atmospheric link, with a long-term stability approximately 8.3 × 10-16 over a duration of 7800 seconds. Over an 11-hour period, the peak-to-peak wander is approximately 100 ps. Our work establishes the foundation of the time frequency transfer, based on the space laser communication channel, for future ground-to-space and inter-satellite links.
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With the rapid development of superconducting quantum computing and the implementation of surface code, large-scale quantum computing is emerging as an urgent demand. In a superconducting computing system, the qubit is maintained in a cryogenic environment to avoid thermal excitation. Thus, the transmission of control signals, which are generated at room temperature, is needed. Typically, the transmission of these signals to the qubit relies on a coaxial cable wiring approach. However, in a large-scale computing system with hundreds or even thousands of qubits, the coaxial cables will pose great space and heat load to the dilution refrigerator. Here, to tackle this problem, we propose and demonstrate a direct-modulation-based optical transmission line. In our experiment, the average single-qubit XEB error and control error are measured as 0.139% and 0.014% separately, demonstrating the feasibility of the optical wiring approach and paving the way for large-scale superconducting quantum computing.
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Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution (MDI QKD) provides immunity against all attacks targeting measurement devices. It is essential to implement MDI QKD in the future global-scale quantum communication network. Toward this goal, we demonstrate a robust MDI QKD fully covering daytime, overcoming the high background noise that prevents BB84 protocol even when using a perfect single-photon source. Based on this, we establish a hybrid quantum communication network that integrates free-space and fiber channels through Hong-Ou-Mandle (HOM) interference. Additionally, we investigate the feasibility of implementing HOM interference with moving satellites. Our results serve as a significant cornerstone for future integrated space-ground quantum communication networks that incorporate measurement-device-independent security.
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Quantum key distribution (QKD) uses individual light quanta in quantum superposition states to guarantee unconditional communication security between distant parties. However, the distance over which QKD is achievable has been limited to a few hundred kilometres, owing to the channel loss that occurs when using optical fibres or terrestrial free space that exponentially reduces the photon transmission rate. Satellite-based QKD has the potential to help to establish a global-scale quantum network, owing to the negligible photon loss and decoherence experienced in empty space. Here we report the development and launch of a low-Earth-orbit satellite for implementing decoy-state QKD-a form of QKD that uses weak coherent pulses at high channel loss and is secure because photon-number-splitting eavesdropping can be detected. We achieve a kilohertz key rate from the satellite to the ground over a distance of up to 1,200 kilometres. This key rate is around 20 orders of magnitudes greater than that expected using an optical fibre of the same length. The establishment of a reliable and efficient space-to-ground link for quantum-state transmission paves the way to global-scale quantum networks.
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An arbitrary unknown quantum state cannot be measured precisely or replicated perfectly. However, quantum teleportation enables unknown quantum states to be transferred reliably from one object to another over long distances, without physical travelling of the object itself. Long-distance teleportation is a fundamental element of protocols such as large-scale quantum networks and distributed quantum computation. But the distances over which transmission was achieved in previous teleportation experiments, which used optical fibres and terrestrial free-space channels, were limited to about 100 kilometres, owing to the photon loss of these channels. To realize a global-scale 'quantum internet' the range of quantum teleportation needs to be greatly extended. A promising way of doing so involves using satellite platforms and space-based links, which can connect two remote points on Earth with greatly reduced channel loss because most of the propagation path of the photons is in empty space. Here we report quantum teleportation of independent single-photon qubits from a ground observatory to a low-Earth-orbit satellite, through an uplink channel, over distances of up to 1,400 kilometres. To optimize the efficiency of the link and to counter the atmospheric turbulence in the uplink, we use a compact ultra-bright source of entangled photons, a narrow beam divergence and high-bandwidth and high-accuracy acquiring, pointing and tracking. We demonstrate successful quantum teleportation of six input states in mutually unbiased bases with an average fidelity of 0.80 ± 0.01, well above the optimal state-estimation fidelity on a single copy of a qubit (the classical limit). Our demonstration of a ground-to-satellite uplink for reliable and ultra-long-distance quantum teleportation is an essential step towards a global-scale quantum internet.
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Long-distance quantum state transfer (QST), which can be achieved with the help of quantum teleportation, is a core element of important quantum protocols. A typical situation for QST based on teleportation is one in which two remote communication partners (Alice and Bob) are far from the entanglement source (Charlie). Because of the atmospheric turbulence, it is challenging to implement the Bell-state measurement after photons propagate in atmospheric channels. In previous long-distance free-space experiments, Alice and Charlie always perform local Bell-state measurement before the entanglement distribution process is completed. Here, by developing a highly stable interferometer to project the photon into a hybrid path-polarization dimension and utilizing the satellite-borne entangled photon source, we demonstrate proof-of-principle QST at the distance of over 1200 km assisted by prior quantum entanglement shared between two distant ground stations with the satellite Micius. The average fidelity of transferred six distinct quantum states is 0.82±0.01, exceeding the classical limit of 2/3 on a single copy of a qubit.
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Time synchronization is crucial for quantum key distribution (QKD) systems. In order to compensate for the time drift caused by the Doppler effect and adapt to the unstable optical link in satellite-to-ground QKD, previous demonstrations generally adopted synchronization methods requiring additional hardware. In this paper, we present a novel synchronization method based on the detected quantum photons, thus simplifying additional hardware and reducing the complexity and cost. This method adopts target frequency scanning to realize fast frequency recovery, utilizes polynomial fitting to compensate for the Doppler effect, and takes use of the vacuum state in the decoy-state BB84 protocol to recover the time offset. This method can avoid the influence of synchronization light jitter, thus improving the synchronization precision and the secure keys as well. Successful satellite-to-ground QKD based on this new synchronization scheme has been conducted to demonstrate its feasibility and performance. The presented scheme provides an effective synchronization solution for quantum communication applications.
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Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution (MDI-QKD), based on two-photon interference, is immune to all attacks against the detection system and allows a QKD network with untrusted relays. Since the MDI-QKD protocol was proposed, fiber-based implementations aimed at longer distance, higher key rates, and network verification have been rapidly developed. However, owing to the effect of atmospheric turbulence, MDI-QKD over a free-space channel remains experimentally challenging. Herein, by developing a robust adaptive optics system, high-precision time synchronization and frequency locking between independent photon sources located far apart, we realized the first free-space MDI-QKD over a 19.2-km urban atmospheric channel, which well exceeds the effective atmospheric thickness. Our experiment takes the first step toward satellite-based MDI-QKD. Moreover, the technology developed herein opens the way to quantum experiments in free space involving long-distance interference of independent single photons.
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The security of decoy-state quantum key distribution (QKD) highly depends on the accurate control of multiple intensity states. Although several theoretical studies on the QKD with loosely controlled source intensities have been proposed, there is still a large gap between the experimental realization and the theoretical analysis. In this paper, we adopt the gain-switching method to generate short optical pulses, and the corresponding intensity stabilities are quantitatively measured. The method via optical injection is proposed to make effective reductions of the intensity fluctuations from 6.47%â¼1.59% to 1.95%â¼1.15% at different optical powers. QKD performance adopting the experimental results is also analyzed and discussed. For a typical 40 dB high-attenuation QKD system, the relative increase on the secure key rates reaches 51.89% for the corresponding intensity fluctuations of 1.15% with optical injection and 1.59% without optical injection. The presented intensity-stable optical pulse source can find wide applications in different QKD protocols, such as BB84, DPS, COW, etc.
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Single-photon detectors (SPDs) play important roles in highly sensitive detection applications, such as fluorescence spectroscopy, remote sensing and ranging, deep space optical communications, elementary particle detection, and quantum communications. However, the adverse conditions in space, such as the increased radiation flux and thermal vacuum, severely limit their noise performances, reliability, and lifetime. Herein, we present the example of spaceborne, low-noise, high reliability SPDs, based on commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) silicon avalanche photodiodes (APD). Based on the high noise-radiation sensitivity of silicon APD, we have developed special shielding structures, multistage cooling technologies, and configurable driver electronics that significantly improved the COTS APD reliability and mitigated the SPD noise-radiation sensitivity. This led to a reduction of the expected in-orbit radiation-induced dark count rate (DCR) increment rate from â¼219 counts per second (cps) per day to â¼0.76 cps/day. During a continuous period of continuous operations in orbit which spanned of 1029 days, the SPD DCR was maintained below 1000 cps, i.e., the actual in-orbit radiation-induced DCR increment rate was â¼0.54 cps/day, i.e., two orders of magnitude lower than those evoked by previous technologies, while its photon detection efficiency was > 45%. Our spaceborne, low-noise SPDs established a feasible satellite-based up-link quantum communication that was validated on the quantum experiment science satellite platform. Moreover, our SPDs open new windows of opportunities for space research and applications in deep-space optical communications, single-photon laser ranging, as well as for testing the fundamental principles of physics in space.
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Polarization modulation plays a key role in polarization-encoding quantum key distribution (QKD). Here, we report a new, to the best of our knowledge, polarization modulation scheme based on an inherently stable Sagnac interferometer. The presented scheme is free of polarization mode dispersion and calibration as well as insensitive to environmental influences. Successful experiments at a repetition frequency of 1.25 GHz have been conducted to demonstrate the feasibility and stability of the scheme. The measured average quantum bit-error rate of the four polarization states is as low as 0.27% for 80 consecutive minutes without any adjustment. This high-speed intrinsically stable polarization modulation can be widely applied to many polarization-encoding QKD systems, such as BB84, MDI, etc.
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Free-space quantum key distribution (QKD) is important to realize a global-scale quantum communication network. However, performing QKD in daylight against the strong background light noise is a major challenge. Here, we develop the stochastic parallel gradient descent (SPGD) algorithm with a deformable mirror to improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). We then experimentally demonstrate free-space QKD in the presence of urban daylight. The final secure key rate of the QKD is 98â¼419 bps throughout the majority of the daylight hours.
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Quantum entanglement was termed "spooky action at a distance" in the well-known paper by Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen. Entanglement is expected to be distributed over longer and longer distances in both practical applications and fundamental research into the principles of nature. Here, we present a proposal for distributing entangled photon pairs between Earth and the Moon using a Lagrangian point at a distance of 1.28 light seconds. One of the most fascinating features in this long-distance distribution of entanglement is as follows. One can perform the Bell test with human supplying the random measurement settings and recording the results while still maintaining spacelike intervals. To realize a proof-of-principle experiment, we develop an entangled photon source with 1 GHz generation rate, about 2 orders of magnitude higher than previous results. Violation of Bell's inequality was observed under a total simulated loss of 103 dB with measurement settings chosen by two experimenters. This demonstrates the feasibility of such long-distance Bell test over extremely high-loss channels, paving the way for one of the ultimate tests of the foundations of quantum mechanics.
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We perform decoy-state quantum key distribution between a low-Earth-orbit satellite and multiple ground stations located in Xinglong, Nanshan, and Graz, which establish satellite-to-ground secure keys with â¼kHz rate per passage of the satellite Micius over a ground station. The satellite thus establishes a secure key between itself and, say, Xinglong, and another key between itself and, say, Graz. Then, upon request from the ground command, Micius acts as a trusted relay. It performs bitwise exclusive or operations between the two keys and relays the result to one of the ground stations. That way, a secret key is created between China and Europe at locations separated by 7600 km on Earth. These keys are then used for intercontinental quantum-secured communication. This was, on the one hand, the transmission of images in a one-time pad configuration from China to Austria as well as from Austria to China. Also, a video conference was performed between the Austrian Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which also included a 280 km optical ground connection between Xinglong and Beijing. Our work clearly confirms the Micius satellite as a robust platform for quantum key distribution with different ground stations on Earth, and points towards an efficient solution for an ultralong-distance global quantum network.
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Transferring an unknown quantum state over arbitrary distances is essential for large-scale quantum communication and distributed quantum networks. It can be achieved with the help of long-distance quantum teleportation and entanglement distribution. The latter is also important for fundamental tests of the laws of quantum mechanics. Although quantum teleportation and entanglement distribution over moderate distances have been realized using optical fibre links, the huge photon loss and decoherence in fibres necessitate the use of quantum repeaters for larger distances. However, the practical realization of quantum repeaters remains experimentally challenging. Free-space channels, first used for quantum key distribution, offer a more promising approach because photon loss and decoherence are almost negligible in the atmosphere. Furthermore, by using satellites, ultra-long-distance quantum communication and tests of quantum foundations could be achieved on a global scale. Previous experiments have achieved free-space distribution of entangled photon pairs over distances of 600 metres (ref. 14) and 13 kilometres (ref. 15), and transfer of triggered single photons over a 144-kilometre one-link free-space channel. Most recently, following a modified scheme, free-space quantum teleportation over 16 kilometres was demonstrated with a single pair of entangled photons. Here we report quantum teleportation of independent qubits over a 97-kilometre one-link free-space channel with multi-photon entanglement. An average fidelity of 80.4 ± 0.9 per cent is achieved for six distinct states. Furthermore, we demonstrate entanglement distribution over a two-link channel, in which the entangled photons are separated by 101.8 kilometres. Violation of the Clauser-Horne-Shimony-Holt inequality is observed without the locality loophole. Besides being of fundamental interest, our results represent an important step towards a global quantum network. Moreover, the high-frequency and high-accuracy acquiring, pointing and tracking technique developed in our experiment can be directly used for future satellite-based quantum communication and large-scale tests of quantum foundations.
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To establish optical links between an optical ground station (OGS) and a quantum experiment satellite, a method of acquisition for the Micius satellite is proposed in this paper and the acquisition technological specification of the OGS system is analyzed. An acquisition strategy for the OGS is designed to meet the requirements of the quantum experiments. A method is designed to point accurately at the quantum satellite and improve the absolute pointing precision. The results show that the correction accuracy is better than 5 µrad, the acquisition time is less than 5 s, and the acquisition probability is 100% so far.