Assessment of Interpersonal Motivation in Transcripts (AIMIT): an inter- and intra-rater reliability study of a new method of detection of interpersonal motivational systems in psychotherapy.

Assessing Interpersonal Motivations in Transcripts (AIMIT) is a coding system aiming to systematically detect the activity of interpersonal motivational systems (IMS) in the therapeutic dialogue. An inter- and intra-rater reliability study has been conducted. Sixteen video-recorded psychotherapy sessions were selected and transcribed according to the AIMIT criteria. Sessions relate to 16 patients with an Axis II diagnosis, with a mean Global Assessment of Functioning of 51. For the intra-rater reliability evaluation, five sessions have been selected and assigned to five independent coders who where asked to make a first evaluation, and then a second independent one 14 days later. For the inter-rater reliability study, the sessions coded by the therapist-coder were jointly revised with another coder and finally classified as gold standard. The 16 standard sessions were sent to other evaluators for the independent coding. The agreement (κ) was estimated according to the following parameters for each coding unit: evaluation units supported by the 'codable' activation of one or more IMS; motivational interaction with reference to the ongoing relation between patient and therapist; an interaction between the patient and another person reported/narrated by the patient; detection of specific IMS: attachment (At), caregiving (CG), rank (Ra), sexuality (Se), peer cooperation (PC); and transitions from one IMS to another were also scored. The intra-rater agreement was evaluated through the parameters 'cod', 'At', 'CG', 'Ra', 'Se' and 'PC' described above. A total of 2443 coding units were analysed. For the nine parameters on which the agreement was calculated, eight ['coded (Cod)', 'ongoing relation (Rel)', 'narrated relation (Nar)', 'At', 'CG', 'Ra', 'Se' and 'PC'] have κ values comprised between 0.62 (CG) and 0.81 (Cod) and were therefore satisfactory. The scoring of 'transitions' showed agreement values slightly below desired cut-off (0.56). Intra-rater reliability was very good (κ values for Cod = 0.90; κ for all IMS = 0.78). Data seem to support the validity of the AIMIT method in terms of reliability, and encourage to further implementation of the AIMIT approach.

Target2 imbalances and poverty in the eurozone.

This paper aims to investigate the relationship between external imbalances and poverty in the Eurozone. The former are registered through the Target2 (T2) settlement mechanism and can be assimilated into changes in official reserves to cover the balance of payments disequilibrium in a fixed exchange rate regime. The presence of T2 discrepancies has led to differences in interest rates and increased distances in general living conditions inside the Eurozone. An empirical investigation implemented in 11 Eurozone countries reveals that T2 is negatively correlated with poverty, therefore allowing for an interpretation that approximates balance of payment crisis models. Results that appear to be robust to several control variables suggest that the policy framework of the Eurozone-in the absence of a compensatory mechanism-should be revised towards centralised fiscal instruments and anti-speculative monetary interventions.

Psychoanalysis and cognitive-evolutionary psychology: an attempt at integration.

The authors argue that the abandonment of the theory of trauma in 1897 was a trauma for Freud himself, who was led to 'despair', and possibly reacted with an overemphasis on inner fantasies and drive discharge. They suggest that today we are facing a second trauma in the history of psychoanalysis that we might call the 'abandonment of drive theory', i.e. the notion that human beings strive not primarily to reduce sexual and aggressive drives but rather seek objects, assign meanings, test previous beliefs and assimilate new schemes. Our task is to recover as Freud was able to do, giving a new impetus to psychoanalysis. The current challenge is, on the one hand, a revision of the psychoanalytic conception of inherited information, and, on the other, a theory of motivation based on converging evidence from cognitive science, ethology, infant research and psychotherapy research. Many clinical models are current in contemporary psychoanalysis. Only as one example among these models, some concepts used in Weiss & Sampson's 'Control-Mastery Theory' will be discussed in light of cognitive science and evolutionary epistemology within the framework of (a) the 1960 classic, 'Plans and Structure of Behavior' by Miller, Galanter and Pribram (b) Edelman's neurobiological theory and (c) Bowlby's attachment theory.

Predictive factors for borderline personality disorder: patients' early traumatic experiences and losses suffered by the attachment figure. The Italian Group for the Study of Dissociation.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that serious losses in the life of the attachment figure and patients' early traumatic experiences are risk factors for the development of borderline personality disorder. METHOD: A multicentric hospital-based case-control study of 66 cases and 146 controls. RESULTS: We estimated an odds ratio of 2.5 (95% CI 1.1-5.8) for mothers' serious losses experienced within 2 years of patients' birth and an odds ratio of 5.3 (95% CI 2.1-13) for patients' early traumatic experiences. Both of them are adjusted for the confounding effect of the other as well as for that of age, size of family and type of patient (in- or out-patient), using a multiple logistic function. CONCLUSION: Mourning process in the mother within 2 years of the patient's birth and patients' early traumatic experiences are predictive factors for the development of borderline personality disorder.

Risk factors in the early family life of patients suffering from dissociative disorders.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that not only intrafamiliar childhood abuses inflicted to the patient, but also major losses or other severe life events suffered by the mother within 2 years of patient's birth, are risk factors for the development of dissociative disorders (DDs). METHOD: A multicentric case-control study of 52 cases and 146 controls. RESULTS: We estimated a crude odds ratio (OR) of 2.6 (adjusted 1.9) for mothers' losses or other severe life events experienced within 2 years of patient's birth, and a crude OR of 7.6 (adjusted 7.2) for patient's early traumatic experiences. CONCLUSION: Mother's losses or other severe life events within 2 years of patient's birth and patient's traumatic experiences during childhood are risk factors for the development of dissociative disorders. A possible explanation of these findings is that disorganized or insecure attachment may increase susceptibility to traumatic experiences and propensity to dissociation in adult life.