Borrelia turicatae from Ticks in Peridomestic Setting, Camayeca, Mexico.

We conducted surveillance studies in Sinaloa, Mexico, to determine the circulation of tick-borne relapsing fever spirochetes. We collected argasid ticks from a home in the village of Camayeca and isolated spirochetes. Genomic analysis indicated that Borrelia turicatae infection is a threat to those living in resource-limited settings.

Autogenous reproduction by Ornithodoros turicata (Ixodida: Argasidae) females and vertical transmission of the tick-borne pathogen Borrelia turicatae (Spirochaetales: Borreliaceae).

IMPORTANCE: Previous research has implicated Ornithodoros ticks, including Ornithodoros turicata, as long-term reservoirs of relapsing fever (RF) spirochetes. Considering the tick's long lifespan and their efficiency in maintaining and transferring spirochetes within the population, the infection could persist in a given enzootic focus for decades. However, little is known about the relative importance of horizontal and vertical transmission routes in the persistence and evolution of RF Borrelia. Our observations on the reproductive biology of O. turicata in the absence of vertebrate hosts indicate an additional mechanism by which Borrelia turicatae can be maintained in the environment. This work establishes the foundation for studying O. turicata reproduction and spirochete-vector interactions, which will aid in devising control measures for Ornithodoros ticks and RF spirochetes.

New records of Ornithodoros turicata (Ixodida: Argasidae) in rural and urban sites in the Mexican states of Aguascalientes and Zacatecas indicate the potential for tick-borne relapsing fever.

Soft ticks from the Ornithodoros genus are vectors of relapsing fever (RF) spirochetes around the world. In Mexico, they were originally described in the 19th century. However, few recent surveillance studies have been conducted in Mexico, and regions where RF spirochetes circulate remain vague. Here, the presence of soft ticks in populated areas was assessed in two sites from the Mexican states of Aguascalientes and Zacatecas. Argasidae ticks were collected, identified by morphology and mitochondrial 16S rDNA gene sequencing, and tested for RF borreliae. The specimens in both sites were identified as Ornithodoros turicata but no RF spirochetes were detected. These findings emphasize the need to update the distribution of these ticks in multiple regions of Mexico and to determine the circulation of RF borreliosis in humans and domestic animals.

Comparative genomics of the Western Hemisphere soft tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae highlights extensive plasmid diversity.

BACKGROUND: Tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF) is a globally prevalent, yet under-studied vector-borne disease transmitted by soft and hard bodied ticks. While soft TBRF (sTBRF) spirochetes have been described for over a century, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms facilitating vector and host adaptation is poorly understood. This is due to the complexity of their small (~ 1.5 Mb) but fragmented genomes that typically consist of a linear chromosome and both linear and circular plasmids. A majority of sTBRF spirochete genomes' plasmid sequences are either missing or are deposited as unassembled sequences. Consequently, our goal was to generate complete, plasmid-resolved genomes for a comparative analysis of sTBRF species of the Western Hemisphere. RESULTS: Utilizing a Borrelia specific pipeline, genomes of sTBRF spirochetes from the Western Hemisphere were sequenced and assembled using a combination of short- and long-read sequencing technologies. Included in the analysis were the two recently isolated species from Central and South America, Borrelia puertoricensis n. sp. and Borrelia venezuelensis, respectively. Plasmid analyses identified diverse sequences that clustered plasmids into 30 families; however, only three families were conserved and syntenic across all species. We also compared two species, B. venezuelensis and Borrelia turicatae, which were isolated ~ 6,800 km apart and from different tick vector species but were previously reported to be genetically similar. CONCLUSIONS: To truly understand the biological differences observed between species of TBRF spirochetes, complete chromosome and plasmid sequences are needed. This comparative genomic analysis highlights high chromosomal synteny across the species yet diverse plasmid composition. This was particularly true for B. turicatae and B. venezuelensis, which had high average nucleotide identity yet extensive plasmid diversity. These findings are foundational for future endeavors to evaluate the role of plasmids in vector and host adaptation.

The Diadenylate Cyclase CdaA Is Critical for Borrelia turicatae Virulence and Physiology.

Relapsing fever (RF), caused by spirochetes of the genus Borrelia, is a globally distributed, vector-borne disease with high prevalence in developing countries. To date, signaling pathways required for infection and virulence of RF Borrelia spirochetes are unknown. Cyclic di-AMP (c-di-AMP), synthesized by diadenylate cyclases (DACs), is a second messenger predominantly found in Gram-positive organisms that is linked to virulence and essential physiological processes. Although Borrelia is Gram-negative, it encodes one DAC (CdaA), and its importance remains undefined. To investigate the contribution of c-di-AMP signaling in the RF bacterium Borrelia turicatae, a cdaA mutant was generated. The mutant was significantly attenuated during murine infection, and genetic complementation reversed this phenotype. Because c-di-AMP is essential for viability in many bacteria, whole-genome sequencing was performed on cdaA mutants, and single-nucleotide polymorphisms identified potential suppressor mutations. Additionally, conditional mutation of cdaA confirmed that CdaA is important for normal growth and physiology. Interestingly, mutation of cdaA did not affect expression of homologs of virulence regulators whose levels are impacted by c-di-AMP signaling in the Lyme disease bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi Finally, the cdaA mutant had a significant growth defect when grown with salts, at decreased osmolarity, and without pyruvate. While the salt treatment phenotype was not reversed by genetic complementation, possibly due to suppressor mutations, growth defects at decreased osmolarity and in media lacking pyruvate could be attributed directly to cdaA inactivation. Overall, these results indicate CdaA is critical for B. turicatae pathogenesis and link c-di-AMP to osmoregulation and central metabolism in RF spirochetes.

Isolation and Molecular Characterization of Tick-Borne Relapsing Fever Borrelia Infecting Ornithodoros (Pavlovskyella) verrucosus Ticks Collected in Ukraine.

BACKGROUND: Tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF) is a neglected zoonotic bacterial disease known to occur on 5 continents. We report a laboratory-acquired case of TBRF caused by Borrelia caucasica, which is endemic in Ukraine and transmitted by Ornithodoros verrucosus ticks. METHODS: We isolated spirochetes and characterized them by partially sequencing the 16s ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rrs), flagellin (flaB), and deoxyribonucleic acid gyrase (gyrB) genes and conducting a phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS: These analyses revealed a close relationship of Ukrainian spirochetes with the Asian TBRF species, Borrelia persica. The taxonomic and nomenclature problems related to insufficient knowledge on the spirochetes and their vectors in the region are discussed. CONCLUSIONS: Although these findings enhance our understanding of species identities for TBRF Borrelia in Eurasia, further work is required to address the neglected status of TBRF in this part of the world. Public health practitioners should consider TBRF and include the disease into differential diagnosis of febrile illnesses with unknown etiology.

The relapsing fever spirochete Borrelia turicatae persists in the highly oxidative environment of its soft-bodied tick vector.

The relapsing fever spirochete Borrelia turicatae possesses a complex life cycle in its soft-bodied tick vector, Ornithodoros turicata. Spirochetes enter the tick midgut during a blood meal, and, during the following weeks, spirochetes disseminate throughout O. turicata. A population persists in the salivary glands allowing for rapid transmission to the mammalian hosts during tick feeding. Little is known about the physiological environment within the salivary glands acini in which B. turicatae persists. In this study, we examined the salivary gland transcriptome of O. turicata ticks and detected the expression of 57 genes involved in oxidant metabolism or antioxidant defences. We confirmed the expression of five of the most highly expressed genes, including glutathione peroxidase (gpx), thioredoxin peroxidase (tpx), manganese superoxide dismutase (sod-1), copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (sod-2), and catalase (cat) by reverse-transcriptase droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (RT-ddPCR). We also found distinct differences in the expression of these genes when comparing the salivary glands and midguts of unfed O. turicata ticks. Our results indicate that the salivary glands of unfed O. turicata nymphs are highly oxidative environments where reactive oxygen species (ROS) predominate, whereas midgut tissues comprise a primarily nitrosative environment where nitric oxide synthase is highly expressed. Additionally, B. turicatae was found to be hyperresistant to ROS compared with the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi, suggesting it is uniquely adapted to the highly oxidative environment of O. turicata salivary gland acini.

Immunological Responses to the Relapsing Fever Spirochete Borrelia turicatae in Infected Rhesus Macaques: Implications for Pathogenesis and Diagnosis.

The global public health impact of relapsing fever (RF) spirochetosis is significant, since the pathogens exist on five of seven continents. The hallmark sign of infection is episodic fever and the greatest threat is to the unborn. With the goal of better understanding the specificity of B-cell responses and the role of immune responses in pathogenicity, we infected rhesus macaques with Borrelia turicatae (a new world RF spirochete species) by tick bite and monitored the immune responses generated in response to the pathogen. Specifically, we evaluated inflammatory mediator induction by the pathogen, host antibody responses to specific antigens, and peripheral lymphocyte population dynamics. Our results indicate that B. turicatae elicits from peripheral blood cells key inflammatory response mediators (interleukin-1ß and tumor necrosis factor alpha), which are associated with preterm abortion. Moreover, a global decline in peripheral B-cell populations was observed in all animals at 14 days postinfection. Serological responses were also evaluated to assess the antigenicity of three surface proteins: BipA, BrpA, and Bta112. Interestingly, a distinction was observed between antibodies generated in nonhuman primates and mice. Our results provide support for the nonhuman primate model not only in studies of prenatal pathogenesis but also for diagnostic and vaccine antigen identification and testing.

Antibodies to Borrelia turicatae in Experimentally Infected Dogs Cross-React with Borrelia burgdorferi Serologic Assays.

Tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF) is caused by several Borrelia spp. (including Borrelia turicatae), which are primarily transmitted by Ornithodoros ticks. Relapsing fever group species are found worldwide, except for Antarctica. Approximately 500 human cases were reported between 1990 and 2011 in the United States (likely an underestimate), while cases in domestic and wild dogs were reported from Florida, Texas, and Washington. TBRF spirochetes are related to Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme borreliosis. Dogs are routinely screened for B. burgdorferi, but it is unknown if infection with TBRF agents produces antibodies cross-reactive with B. burgdorferi assays. These data are critical for accurate surveillance of TBRF and Lyme borreliosis in dogs. In this study, B. burgdorferi-negative dogs were inoculated with B. turicatae, and seroconversion was confirmed by the rBipA (recombinant Borrelia immunogenic protein A) Western blot. Seropositive samples were tested with commercial and veterinary diagnostic laboratory B. burgdorferi-based tests. Borrelia turicatae-seroreactive samples cross-reacted with a whole-cell indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test and two multiantigen tests, but not with single-antigen tests using C6. Cross-reactivity with TBRF can confound epidemiology and surveillance efforts and confuse recommendations made by veterinarians for prevention and control. These findings demonstrate the need to critically evaluate results from B. burgdorferi diagnostic tests in the context of the assay type and the animal's geographical location and history of travel, as well as highlighting the need for commercially available specific diagnostic tests for TBRF spirochetes.

Detection of Tickborne Relapsing Fever Spirochete, Austin, Texas, USA.

In March 2017, a patient became febrile within 4 days after visiting a rustic conference center in Austin, Texas, USA, where Austin Public Health suspected an outbreak of tickborne relapsing fever a month earlier. Evaluation of a patient blood smear and molecular diagnostic assays identified Borrelia turicatae as the causative agent. We could not gain access to the property to collect ticks. Thus, we focused efforts at a nearby public park, <1 mile from the suspected exposure site. We trapped Ornithodoros turicata ticks from 2 locations in the park, and laboratory evaluation resulted in cultivation of 3 B. turicatae isolates. Multilocus sequencing of 3 chromosomal loci (flaB, rrs, and gyrB) indicated that the isolates were identical to those of B. turicatae 91E135 (a tick isolate) and BTE5EL (a human isolate). We identified the endemicity of O. turicata ticks and likely emergence of B. turicatae in this city.

Vector Competence of Geographical Populations of Ornithodoros turicata for the Tick-Borne Relapsing Fever Spirochete Borrelia turicatae.

Vector competence refers to the ability of an arthropod to acquire, maintain, and successfully transmit a microbial pathogen. Tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF) spirochetes are globally distributed pathogens, and most species are transmitted by argasid ticks of the genus Ornithodoros. A defining characteristic in vector competence is an apparent specificity of a species of TBRF spirochete to a given tick species. In arid regions of the southern United States, Borrelia turicatae is the primary cause of TBRF. Interestingly, there are two populations of the tick vector distributed throughout this region. Ornithodoros turicata is a western population that ranges from California to Texas. There is a gap through Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama where the tick has not been identified. An isolated eastern population exists in Florida and was designated a subspecies, O. turicata americanus. A knowledge gap that exists is the poor understanding of vector competence between western and eastern populations of ticks for B. turicatae. In this study, we generated uninfected colonies of O. turicata that originated in Texas and Kansas and of O. turicataamericanus. B. turicatae acquisition, maintenance through the molt, and subsequent transmission were evaluated. Our findings revealed significant differences in murine infection after feeding infected O. turicata and O. turicataamericanus ticks on the animals. Interestingly, the salivary glands of both tick populations were colonized with B. turicatae to similar densities. Our results suggest that the salivary glands of the tick colonies assessed in this study impact vector competence of the evaluated B. turicatae isolates.IMPORTANCE Several knowledge gaps exist in the vector competence of various geographical populations of O. turicata that transmit B. turicatae A western population of this tick is distributed from California to Texas, and an eastern population exists in Florida. Utilizing western and eastern populations of the vector, we studied acquisition and transmission of two B. turicatae isolates. Regardless of the isolate used, infection frequencies were poor in mice after the eastern population feeding on them. Since salivary gland colonization is essential for B. turicatae transmission, these tissues were further evaluated. Interestingly, the salivary glands from the two populations were similarly colonized with B. turicatae. These findings suggest the role of tick saliva in the establishment of infection and that the salivary glands may be a bottleneck for successful transmission.

Diagnosis and Management of Borrelia turicatae Infection in Febrile Soldier, Texas, USA.

In August 2015, a soldier returned from field exercises in Texas, USA, with nonspecific febrile illness. Culture and sequencing of spirochetes from peripheral blood diagnosed Borrelia turicatae infection. The patient recovered after receiving doxycycline. No illness occurred in asymptomatic soldiers potentially exposed to the vector tick and prophylactically given treatment.

Imaging of Borrelia turicatae Producing the Green Fluorescent Protein Reveals Persistent Colonization of the Ornithodoros turicata Midgut and Salivary Glands from Nymphal Acquisition through Transmission.

Relapsing fever (RF) spirochetes colonize and are transmitted to mammals primarily by Ornithodoros ticks, and little is known regarding the pathogen's life cycle in the vector. To further understand vector colonization and transmission of RF spirochetes, Borrelia turicatae expressing a green fluorescent protein (GFP) marker (B. turicatae-gfp) was generated. The transformants were evaluated during the tick-mammal infectious cycle, from the third nymphal instar to adult stage. B. turicatae-gfp remained viable for at least 18 months in starved fourth-stage nymphal ticks, and the studies indicated that spirochete populations persistently colonized the tick midgut and salivary glands. Our generation of B. turicatae-gfp also revealed that within the salivary glands, spirochetes are localized in the ducts and lumen of acini, and after tick feeding, the tissues remained populated with spirochetes. The B. turicatae-gfp generated in this study is an important tool to further understand and define the mechanisms of vector colonization and transmission.IMPORTANCE In order to interrupt the infectious cycle of tick-borne relapsing fever spirochetes, it is important to enhance our understanding of vector colonization and transmission. Toward this, we generated a strain of Borrelia turicatae that constitutively produced the green fluorescent protein, and we evaluated fluorescing spirochetes during the entire infectious cycle. We determined that the midgut and salivary glands of Ornithodoros turicata ticks maintain the pathogens throughout the vector's life cycle and remain colonized with the spirochetes for at least 18 months. We also determined that the tick's salivary glands were not depleted after a transmission blood feeding. These findings set the framework to further understand the mechanisms of midgut and salivary gland colonization.

SUSPECTED LYME BORRELIOSIS IN A CAPTIVE ADULT CHIMPANZEE (PAN TROGLODYTES).

An 18-yr-old female captive-born chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) presented with an intermittent history of inappetence, lethargy, and lower limb stiffness. No notable abnormalities were found on exam or complete blood cell count and serum biochemistry analysis. Serologic testing was strongly positive via indirect fluorescent antibody testing and Western blot for Borrelia burgdorferi. Treatment with doxycycline was initiated, and a clinical response was seen within 1 wk. Convalescent serum exhibited an eightfold increase in titer. Serologic testing was performed on several conspecifics with banked serum; while some low positive titers were present and presumed indicative of past exposure, no titer was elevated to the extent of the affected chimpanzee during its course of disease. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of suspected Lyme borreliosis in a great ape species, and the case originates from an area of the United States with a high incidence of human borreliosis.

Real-time monitoring of disease progression in rhesus macaques infected with Borrelia turicatae by tick bite.

The hallmark of disease caused by tick- and louse-borne relapsing fever due to Borrelia infection is cyclic febrile episodes, which in humans results in severe malaise and may lead to death. To evaluate the pathogenesis of relapsing fever due to spirochetes in an animal model closely related to humans, disease caused by Borrelia turicatae after tick bite was compared in 2 rhesus macaques in which radiotelemetry devices that recorded body temperatures in 24-hour increments were implanted. The radiotelemetry devices enabled real-time acquisition of core body temperatures and changes in heart rates and electrocardiogram intervals for 28 consecutive days without the need to constantly manipulate the animals. Blood specimens were also collected from all animals for 14 days after tick bite, and spirochete densities were assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The complexity of disease caused by relapsing-fever spirochetes was demonstrated in the nonhuman primates monitored in real time. The animals experienced prolonged episodes of hyperthermia and hypothermia; disruptions in their diurnal patterns and repolarization of the heart were also observed. This is the first report of the characterizing disease progression with continuous monitoring in an animal model of relapsing fever due to Borrelia infection.

Comparative genomics analysis of three conserved plasmid families in the Western Hemisphere soft tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae provides insight into variation in genome structure and antigenic variation systems.

Borrelia spirochetes, causative agents of Lyme disease and relapsing fever (RF), have uniquely complex genomes, consisting of a linear chromosome and both circular and linear plasmids. The plasmids harbor genes important for the vector-host life cycle of these tick-borne bacteria. The role of plasmids from Lyme disease causing spirochetes is more refined compared to RF Borrelia because of limited plasmid-resolved genome assemblies for the latter. We recently addressed this limitation and found that three linear plasmid families (F6, F27, and F28) were syntenic across all the RF Borrelia species that we examined. Given this conservation, we further investigated the three plasmid families. The F6 family, also known as the megaplasmid, contained regions of repetitive DNA. The F27 was the smallest, encoding genes with unknown function. The F28 family encoded the putative expression locus for antigenic variation in all species except Borrelia hermsii and Borrelia anserina. Taken together, this work provides a foundation for future investigations to identify essential plasmid-localized genes that drive the vector-host life cycle of RF Borrelia. IMPORTANCE Borrelia spp. spirochetes are arthropod-borne bacteria found globally that infect humans and other vertebrates. RF borreliae are understudied and misdiagnosed pathogens because of the vague clinical presentation of disease and the elusive feeding behavior of argasid ticks. Consequently, genomics resources for RF spirochetes have been limited. Analyses of Borrelia plasmids have been challenging because they are often highly fragmented and unassembled in most available genome assemblies. By utilizing Oxford Nanopore Technologies, we recently generated plasmid-resolved genome assemblies for seven Borrelia spp. found in the Western Hemisphere. This current study is an in-depth investigation into the linear plasmids that were conserved and syntenic across species. We identified differences in genome structure and, importantly, in antigenic variation systems between species. This work is an important step in identifying crucial plasmid-localized genetic elements essential for the life cycle of RF spirochetes.

Comparative genomics analysis of three conserved plasmid families in the Western Hemisphere soft tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae provides insight into variation in genome structure and antigenic variation systems.

Borrelia spirochetes, causative agents of Lyme disease and relapsing fever (RF), have a uniquely complex genome consisting of a linear chromosome and circular and linear plasmids. The plasmids harbor genes important for the vector-host life cycle of these tick-borne bacteria. The role of Lyme disease causing Borrelia plasmids is more refined compared to RF spirochetes because of limited plasmid-resolved genomes for RF spirochetes. We recently addressed this limitation and found that three linear plasmid families (F6, F27, and F28) were syntenic across all species. Given this conservation, we further investigated the three plasmid families. The F6 family, also known as the megaplasmid, contained regions of repetitive DNA. The F27 was the smallest, encoding genes with unknown function. The F28 family encoded the expression locus for antigenic variation in all species except Borrelia hermsii and Borrelia anserina. Taken together, this work provides a foundation for future investigations to identify essential plasmid-localized genes that drive the vector-host life cycle of RF Borrelia . IMPORTANCE: Borrelia spp. spirochetes are arthropod-borne bacteria found globally and infect humans and other vertebrates. RF borreliae are understudied and misdiagnosed pathogens because of the vague clinical presentation of disease and the elusive feeding behavior of argasid ticks. Consequently, genomics resources for RF spirochetes have been limited. Analyses of Borrelia plasmids have been challenging because they are often highly fragmented and unassembled. By utilizing Oxford Nanopore Technologies, we recently generated plasmid-resolved genomes for seven Borrelia spp. found in the Western Hemisphere. This current study is a more in-depth investigation into the linear plasmids that were conserved and syntenic across species. This analysis determined differences in genome structure and, importantly, in antigenic variation systems between species. This work is an important step in identifying crucial plasmid-borne genetic elements essential for the life cycle of RF spirochetes.