Contraceptive Knowledge among Females and Males Receiving Medication Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder Compared to Those Seeking Primary Care.

BACKGROUND: Rates of unintended pregnancy among women receiving medication treatment for opioid use disorder (mOUD) are high, likely due in part to low rates of contraceptive use. Lack of knowledge about contraception may be contributing to inadequate contraceptive use. Objectives: To compare contraceptive knowledge among women and men receiving mOUD relative to a comparison group seeking primary care. Methods: We surveyed 332 reproductive-age women and men receiving mOUD or primary care with the recently validated 25-item Contraceptive Knowledge Assessment. We examined overall differences between patient groups and between females and males using two-way analyses of variance; individual item differences were tested using logistic regression. Results: The mean percent of total correct responses was lower among individuals receiving mOUD (n = 167) relative to the comparison group (n = 165), 47.7% vs. 53.8%, respectively (p < .001), and higher among females (n = 169) relative to males (n = 163), 56.1% vs. 45.2%, respectively (p < .001). Individual item analyses revealed patient group and sex differences primarily in the areas of contraceptive efficacy, attributes of contraceptive methods, and fertility awareness. Conclusion: While there were modest differences between patient groups and sexes, the results suggest a deficit in contraceptive knowledge across all groups. Substance use disorder treatment clinics could be an opportunistic setting in which to provide accurate information about contraception to patients with OUD and other substance use disorders.

Substance Use Treatment Patient and Provider Perspectives on Accessing Sexual and Reproductive Health Services: Barriers, Facilitators, and the Need for Integration of Care.

Background: Women with substance use disorders have high rates of adverse sexual and reproductive health (SRH) outcomes, including unintended pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and contraceptive nonuse. Little research has explored barriers and facilitators to accessing SRH services experienced by women with substance use disorders. Objectives: To investigate barriers and facilitators to accessing SRH services experienced by women with substance use disorders. To assess perspectives on integration of SRH services into substance use treatment. Methods: Twenty-nine semi-structured interviews were conducted with female patients (N = 17) and providers (N = 12) at four substance use treatment facilities in Michigan between October 2015 and January 2016. Respondents were asked about experiences accessing SRH services and perspectives on integration of SRH services into substance use treatment. Data were analyzed using the constant comparative method. Results: Patients and providers discussed barriers to accessing SRH services, including competing priorities, structural barriers, lack of knowledge on SRH services and substance use, fear of Child Protective Services and law enforcement, and stigma. Facilitators included reprioritization of SRH, accessible transportation, insurance coverage and funding for SRH services, and education and training on SRH. Finally, participants expressed support for integration of SRH services into substance use treatment. Conclusions/Importance: Understanding the barriers to accessing SRH services is essential to reducing the adverse SRH outcomes experienced by women with substance use disorders. Substance use treatment is a critical time to offer SRH services. Integration of care is a potential model for improving the SRH of women with substance use disorders.

Reasons for past abortions among women in treatment for opioid use disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The main reasons women in the general population seek abortion are financial, timing, and partner-related reasons. While women with opioid use disorder (OUD) appear to use abortion services more than women in the general population, reasons for abortion in this group have not been examined to our knowledge. METHOD: Female patients aged 18-50 years in OUD treatment at 22 randomly selected facilities in Michigan were surveyed. The survey included items assessing reproductive health history. Women who reported having one or more abortions were asked to think back to that time and their reasons for choosing abortion. Twenty potential reasons and a write-in option were offered; women could endorse as many as applied. RESULTS: Of 260 women surveyed, 84 reported having an abortion. Of these, most (77.4%) reported multiple reasons for having an abortion. The most common reasons for having an abortion were not having money to take care of a baby (54.8%), feeling too young to have a child and not feeling ready to be a mother (both 42.9%), not loving the father and other partner-related concerns (25.0%-32.1%), and having concerns about the effects of their drug use (28.6%). No combination of reasons for abortion emerged as more prevalent than any other. CONCLUSIONS: Like women in the general population, women in treatment for OUD had not only abortions because of financial, timing, and partner-related reasons but also concerns about the effects of their drug use. These results underscore the multiple and often interrelated reasons that lead women to seek abortion. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Stigma and Reproductive Health Service Access Among Women in Treatment for Substance Use Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to examine the role of perceived and direct stigma on access to reproductive health services among women in treatment for substance use disorders in Michigan. METHODS: We draw on self-interview data from a cross-sectional study of female patients aged 18-50 years who accessed substance use disorder treatment at 22 randomly selected facilities in Michigan from December 2015 to May 2017. We conducted logistic regressions to examine associations between perceived stigma and access to three types of reproductive health services (screening exams, birth control, and prenatal care), as well as direct stigma and access to birth control. RESULTS: The final sample included 260 women. A notable percentage of women reported inability to access reproductive health services (24% for screening exams, 14% for birth control, and 12% for prenatal care). Women with higher levels of perceived stigma because of substance use were significantly more likely to report inability to access screening exams (odds ratio [OR]: 2.14; confidence interval [CI]: 1.43-3.20) and birth control (OR: 2.17; CI: 1.36-3.77). Women reporting higher levels of direct stigma were also significantly more likely to report inability to access birth control (OR: 3.87; CI: 2.29-6.53), even after accounting for perceived stigma. CONCLUSION: Perceived and direct stigma because of substance use may be significant barriers to seeking and accessing reproductive health services for women. Health professionals should reduce stigma in health care in order to increase access to necessary services for this population.

Preliminary side effect profile, safety, and tolerability of hormonal contraception among women receiving opioid-agonist therapy.

OBJECTIVE(S): To characterize for the first time the side effect profile, safety, and tolerability of hormonal contraception among women receiving opioid-agonist therapy. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a secondary analysis of data collected from participants in a three-arm randomized controlled trial (N = 138) aimed at increasing effective contraceptive use among women receiving opioid-agonist therapy. Participants in the 2 intervention conditions (n = 90) had free access to hormonal contraception at each of the 14 visits scheduled during the 6-month intervention. Contraceptive use and side effects were recorded at each visit; participants could change methods or discontinue use at any time. Verbatim side effects were classified using Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities (MedDRA) terminology. RESULTS: Of 67 participants reporting hormonal contraceptive use, 29 (43%) initiated implants, 14 (21%) intrauterine devices, 13 (19%) combined pills, 11 (16%) progestin-only pills, 10 (15%) injectables, 1 (2%) ring, and 1 (2%) patch; the average (±standard deviation) duration of use was 129 ± 55, 129 ± 60, 108 ± 62, 102 ± 61, 111 ± 31, 145, and 18 days, respectively. A total of 321 side effects were reported by 55 (82%) participants. Fifty (75%) participants reported menstrual cycle changes/uterine bleeding, followed by headaches (16, 24%), weight gain (15, 22%), and abdominal pain or nausea/vomiting (11, 16%). No serious side effects were reported. Twelve participants (18%) changed methods and 13 (19%) discontinued all hormonal contraceptive use. CONCLUSION(S): The hormonal contraceptive side effects reported by this small group of women receiving opioid-agonist therapy appear consistent with those reported by the general population, was generally well-tolerated, and did not raise safety concerns. IMPLICATIONS: These results provide important preliminary evidence that hormonal contraceptive use produces a familiar side effect profile and is well-tolerated by women receiving opioid-agonist therapy, although studies with larger samples followed over longer periods of time with appropriate comparison conditions are needed to fully assess tolerability and safety.

Efficacy and Cost-Benefit of Onsite Contraceptive Services With and Without Incentives Among Women With Opioid Use Disorder at High Risk for Unintended Pregnancy: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Rates of in utero opioid exposure continue to increase in the US. Nearly all of these pregnancies are unintended but there has been little intervention research addressing this growing and costly public health problem. Objective: To test the efficacy and cost-benefit of onsite contraceptive services with and without incentives to increase prescription contraceptive use among women with opioid use disorder (OUD) at high risk for unintended pregnancy compared with usual care. Design, Setting, and Participants: A randomized clinical trial of 138 women ages 20 to 44 years receiving medication for OUD who were at high risk for an unintended pregnancy at trial enrollment between May 2015 and September 2018. The final assessment was completed in September 2019. Data were analyzed from October 2019 to March 2021. Participants received contraceptive services at a clinic colocated with an opioid treatment program. Interventions: Participants were randomly assigned to receive 1 of 3 conditions: (1) usual care (ie, information about contraceptive methods and community health care facilities) (n = 48); (2) onsite contraceptive services adapted from the World Health Organization including 6 months of follow-up visits to assess method satisfaction (n = 48); or (3) those same onsite contraceptive services plus financial incentives for attending follow-up visits (n = 42). Main Outcomes and Measures: Verified prescription contraceptive use at 6 months with a cost-benefit analysis conducted from a societal perspective. Results: In this randomized clinical trial of 138 women (median age, 31 years [range, 20-44 years]), graded increases in verified prescription contraceptive use were seen in participants assigned to usual care (10.4%; 95% CI, 3.5%-22.7%) vs contraceptive services (29.2%; 95% CI, 17.0%-44.1%) vs contraceptive services plus incentives (54.8%; 95% CI, 38.7%-70.2%) at the 6-month end-of-treatment assessment (P < .001 for all comparisons). Those effects were sustained at the 12-month final assessment (usual care: 6.3%; 95% CI, 1.3%-17.2%; contraceptive services: 25.0%; 95% CI, 13.6%-39.6%; and contraceptive services plus incentives: 42.9%; 95% CI, 27.7%-59.0%; P < .001) and were associated with graded reductions in unintended pregnancy rates across the 12-month trial (usual care: 22.2%; 95% CI, 11.2%-37.1%; contraceptive services: 16.7%; 95% CI, 7.0%-31.4%; contraceptive services plus incentives: 4.9%; 95% CI, 0.6%-15.5%; P = .03). Each dollar invested yielded an estimated $5.59 (95% CI, $2.73-$7.91) in societal cost-benefits for contraceptive services vs usual care, $6.14 (95% CI, $3.57-$7.08) for contraceptive services plus incentives vs usual care and $6.96 (95% CI, $0.62-$10.09) for combining incentives with contraceptive services vs contraceptive services alone. Conclusions and Relevance: In this randomized clinical trial, outcomes with both onsite contraceptive service interventions exceeded those with usual care, but the most efficacious, cost-beneficial outcomes were achieved by combining contraceptive services with incentives. Colocating contraceptive services with opioid treatment programs offers an innovative, cost-effective strategy for preventing unintended pregnancy. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02411357.

Sexual and Reproductive Health Characteristics of Women in Substance Use Treatment in Michigan.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the sexual and reproductive health characteristics of women in treatment for opioid use disorder in Michigan and explore services provided and desired. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of female patients aged 18-50 years who accessed opioid use disorder treatment at 22 randomly selected facilities in Michigan from December 2015 to May 2017. Computer-assisted self-interviews were completed using online survey management software to assess prior substance use and use disorder treatment, sexual and reproductive health history, and sexual and reproductive health services received in the previous 12 months through a treatment program, and desire for and barriers to sexual and reproductive health services within substance use disorder treatment. Descriptive statistics were calculated. RESULTS: The final sample consisted of 260 participants. About half (51.5%) had ever had an abnormal Pap test result, and 57.3% had ever tested positive for a sexually transmitted infection. Unintended pregnancy was common (61.2%), as was substance use during pregnancy (74.2%). Nearly half (46.5%) were not currently using a method of contraception, and only 28.5% were using a highly effective method. Common barriers to accessing reproductive health services included fear of being treated poorly or judged because of substance use, fear of child protective services, and structural barriers such as cost and lack of transportation. Most participants (80.4%) indicated interest in receiving sexual and reproductive health services on site or by referral from their substance use disorder treatment programs. CONCLUSION: Women in treatment for opioid use disorder in Michigan have high rates of adverse sexual and reproductive health experiences and face barriers to accessing care.

Perceptions of long-acting reversible contraception among women receiving medication for opioid use disorder in Vermont.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate perceptions of long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARC) among women receiving medication for opioid use disorder. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey of 200 women receiving medication for opioid use disorder in Vermont. RESULTS: A considerable proportion of women receiving medication for opioid use disorder in Vermont reported previous use of an IUD (40%) and/or a subdermal contraceptive implant (16%); the majority of prior LARC users were satisfied with their IUD (68%) or their implant (74%). Of the 38% of participants who had never considered IUD use, 85% percent (64/75) said that they knew nothing or only a little about IUDs. Of the 61% of participants who had never considered an implant, 81% percent (98/121) said that they knew nothing or only a little about the contraceptive method. The most commonly reported reasons for a lack of interest in the IUD and/or implant were concerns about side effects and preference for a woman-controlled method. CONCLUSIONS: Gaps in LARC knowledge are common among those who have not used LARCs and concerns about side effects and preferences for a woman-controlled method limit some women's interest in these contraceptives. Additionally, reasons for dissatisfaction among past users are generally similar for IUD and implant and include irregular bleeding and having a bad experience with the method. IMPLICATIONS: Efforts to increase awareness of LARC methods among women receiving medication for opioid use disorder should address concerns about side effects and reproductive autonomy and encourage satisfied LARC users to share their experiences with their social networks.

Pregnancy Intention, Risk Perception, and Contraceptive Use in Pregnant Women Who Use Drugs.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to evaluate pregnancy intention, risk perception, and contraceptive utilization among women reporting substance use during pregnancy. METHODS: Data were obtained from the 2009 to 2011 Tennessee Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS), an annual cross-sectional survey which assesses behaviors before, during and after pregnancy. Substance use during pregnancy and contraceptive use at the time of conception and after delivery were captured by self-report in the postpartum period. Pregnancy intention was categorized as intended (pregnancy desired then or earlier) or unintended (pregnancy desired later or not at all). Weighted descriptive and multivariable analyses were performed. RESULTS: A total of 3042 women completed the PRAMS survey, with 168 (5.4%) reporting substance use during pregnancy. Compared with women who did not report drug use, women who used drugs were more likely to have an unintended pregnancy (65.6% vs 48.4%, P = 0.003), were more ambivalent towards pregnancy planning or prevention (69.7% vs 46.2%, P < 0.001) and were less likely to report contraceptive use before pregnancy (31.3% vs 46.8%, P = 0.022) or in the postpartum period (79.6% vs 88.1%, P = 0.019). Finally, women reporting substance use in pregnancy had 2 times higher odds of reporting that they did not think they could get pregnant at the time of conception after adjusting for age, race, income, education, insurance, and smoking status (adjusted OR 2.18, 95% confidence interval 1.07-4.49, P = 0.033). CONCLUSIONS: Women who report substance use in pregnancy have unique reproductive health needs and would benefit from additional education and counseling concerning their pregnancy intention, contraceptive use, and ability to conceive.

Does co-location of medication assisted treatment and prenatal care for women with opioid use disorder increase pregnancy planning, length of interpregnancy interval, and postpartum contraceptive uptake?

INTRODUCTION: Women with opioid use disorder have higher rates of unplanned pregnancies, shorter interpregnancy intervals and lower rates of contraceptive use compared to women without substance use disorders. This contributes to worse perinatal and reproductive health outcomes for this population. It has been suggested that co-location of medication assisted treatment (MAT) and reproductive health services could allow for improved outcomes among women with substance use disorders. The aim of this study was to determine if location where women received MAT influenced their pregnancy planning, interpregnancy interval or uptake of postpartum contraception between subsequent pregnancies. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective chart review at the University of Vermont Medical Center (UVMMC). Women were eligible for the study if they had two consecutive deliveries at UVMMC between 2009 and 2015 and if they received MAT during one or both pregnancies. Women in this community can receive MAT through a public MAT opioid treatment program (methadone or buprenorphine), a community MAT program (buprenorphine), or through an obstetric provider with co-location of prenatal care and MAT (buprenorphine). Demographics and maternal and neonatal outcomes were collected and descriptive statistics were performed. RESULTS: A total of 98 women were included in the study. Of the women with documented pregnancy intention status, 84% were unplanned, for both pregnancies. Over half of women had a short interpregnancy interval (56.1%), defined as <18 months between consecutive pregnancies. Half of women (50%) did not receive any contraceptive method in the postpartum period. Furthermore, many patients (42.2%) desired long acting reversible contraception (LARC), but only 9.3% received it. Outcomes were not statistically different among the models of care. DISCUSSION: Colocation of MAT with antenatal care did not improve pregnancy planning, interpregnancy interval, or uptake of postpartum contraception. Decisions regarding family planning and continued engagement with the health care system following pregnancy remain challenges in this group of women.