The role of food during oncology treatment: perspectives of cancer patients, caregivers and healthcare professionals.

PURPOSE: Many cancer patients have problems eating which are usually connected to taste and smell alterations due to side effects of cancer treatment. These problems have consequences both in terms of malnutrition and reduced quality of life. In order to explore social and psychological consequences of eating problems in cancer patients, qualitative interviews were conducted with cancer patients, their caregivers and healthcare professionals. METHODS: The study was conducted in three European countries (Poland, Spain and the UK) that differed in culture, oncology care approaches and availability of nutritional products targeted to cancer patients in the market. RESULTS: Differences in the social role of eating between the three European countries were observed which subsequently influenced the impact of eating problems for cancer patients in these countries. Furthermore, the study found that problems with food affect not only the quality of life of cancer patients, but can also distress their caregivers, who are often unable to cope with such food-related problems. In addition, the study showed that commercially available nutritional products for cancer patients focus on nutritional value but tend to neglect an important aspect of eating, which is the enjoyment of food, both individually and socially.

Best research practices for using the Implicit Association Test.

Interest in unintended discrimination that can result from implicit attitudes and stereotypes (implicit biases) has stimulated many research investigations. Much of this research has used the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to measure association strengths that are presumed to underlie implicit biases. It had been more than a decade since the last published treatment of recommended best practices for research using IAT measures. After an initial draft by the first author, and continuing through three subsequent drafts, the 22 authors and 14 commenters contributed extensively to refining the selection and description of recommendation-worthy research practices. Individual judgments of agreement or disagreement were provided by 29 of the 36 authors and commenters. Of the 21 recommended practices for conducting research with IAT measures presented in this article, all but two were endorsed by 90% or more of those who felt knowledgeable enough to express agreement or disagreement; only 4% of the totality of judgments expressed disagreement. For two practices that were retained despite more than two judgments of disagreement (four for one, five for the other), the bases for those disagreements are described in presenting the recommendations. The article additionally provides recommendations for how to report procedures of IAT measures in empirical articles.

Generalized anxiety and depressive symptoms in various age groups during the COVID-19 lockdown in Poland. Specific predictors and differences in symptoms severity.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies carried out in different countries have indicated that young adults experienced higher levels of emotional distress, in the form of depressive and anxiety symptoms, than older age groups during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, little is known about which pandemic-related difficulties and factors may contribute to these forms of emotional distress in various age groups. PURPOSE: The aim of the current study was to investigate: (i) differences in levels of depressive and generalized anxiety symptoms in four age groups in the Polish population during the COVID-19 lockdown; (ii) differences in perceived difficulties related to the pandemic in these groups; and (iii) which factors and difficulties related to the pandemic are the best predictors of generalized anxiety and depressive symptoms in various age groups during the COVID-19 lockdown. METHOD: A total of 1115 participants (aged 18-85) took part in the study. The sample was representative of the Polish population in terms of sex, age, and place of residence. Participants completed the following online: the Patient Health Questionnaire-9, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7, a Scale of Perceived Health and Life Risk of COVID-19, a Social Support Scale, and a Scale of Pandemic-Related Difficulties. RESULTS: Younger age groups (18-29 and 30-44) experienced higher levels of depressive and generalized anxiety symptoms than older adults (45-59 and 60-85 years). Household relationship difficulties were among the most significant predictors of depressive and generalized anxiety symptoms in all age groups. Fear and uncertainty related to the spread of the virus was one of the most important predictors of emotional distress in all the groups apart from the adults between 18 and 29 years, whereas difficulties related to external restrictions were one of the most significant predictors of depressive and anxiety symptoms exclusively in the youngest group. CONCLUSIONS: The youngest adults and those experiencing difficulties in relationships among household members are the most vulnerable to depressive and generalized anxiety symptoms during the COVID-19 lockdown. It is important to plan preventive and therapeutic interventions to support these at-risk individuals in dealing with the various challenges related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Content matters. Different predictors and social consequences of general and government-related conspiracy theories on COVID-19.

In times of crisis, people are more prone to endorse conspiracy theories. Conspiracy thinking provides answers about the causes of an event, but it can also have harmful social consequences. Our research tested both the predictor and the consequences of two types of conspiracy beliefs related to the Covid-19 pandemic: (1) general conspiracy beliefs and (2) government-related conspiracy theories. In two studies in Poland (Ntotal = 2726), we found that a perceived lack of individual control predicted both types of conspiracy theories, while a sense of collective control was positively related to general conspiracy beliefs but negatively associated with government-related conspiracy theories. Moreover, general conspiracy theories were related to the acceptance of xenophobic policies and to a less favourable attitude towards outgroups whereas government-related conspiracy theories were not. Additionally, people who believed in conspiratorial governments less frequently indicated that they used prevention methods, such as social distancing and handwashing. Our research demonstrates the importance of considering the content of various conspiracy theories when studying their social effects and potential causes. Knowing which attitudes may be associated with the endorsement of specific conspiracy theories can contribute to counteracting their negative consequences during crises.

Vegan stereotypes and person perception in a job application situation - differences depending on the type of job and the gender of the candidate.

The objective of the study was to examine the influence of vegan stereotypes on person perception in the context of a job application. The study was conducted online on a representative sample of Polish adults (N = 838). Participants evaluated a fictitious CV of a candidate applying for a job. The CV varied in three dimensions: (a) diet of the candidate (vegan or not); (b) gender of the candidate; and (c) job position (stereotypically male or female). The candidate was evaluated on the dimensions of warmth and competence (based on the stereotype content model). A three-way analysis of variance (2x2x2) showed that in the case of a male candidate applying for a stereotypically male job (financial analyst), information about veganism lowered his perception on the competence dimension (stereotype inconsistency). These results indicate that vegans are targets of ambivalent stereotypes and that bias toward this group depends on the gender of the person following a vegan diet.

Charity campaigns with promotion-framed goals are more effective than those with prevention-framed goals.

Proper communication with the public is crucial for encouraging private donors to make financial and non-financial donations to charities. This study compared the effectiveness of an advertising campaign that used a prevention framing for the charity's purpose and one that used a promotional framing. This experimental study was conducted online with 547 participants. The results showed that the advertising message highlighting the promotional goals of the campaign was more effective than the one based on prevention goals. This result was observed not only for the evaluation of the campaign and organization as well as behavioral intentions, but, crucially, also on the level of actual behavior.

Plant-Based Dairy Alternatives: Consumers' Perceptions, Motivations, and Barriers-Results from a Qualitative Study in Poland, Germany, and France.

Plant-based dairy substitutes have been gaining popularity in recent years, but consumer perspective on these products is still relatively unexplored. The purpose of the study was to investigate the potential of plant-based dairy alternatives, including consumers' motives and the barriers to embracing this food category. A qualitative study (24 focus groups, 154 respondents) was conducted in three countries: Poland, Germany, and France. The study allowed us to describe the reasons for using dairy substitutes (curiosity, health reasons, influence of others), their perceived advantages, and the barriers to their use. The study also showed that the role of dairy differs between the surveyed countries and is related to culinary traditions. As a result, attitudes towards and motives for using dairy substitutes differ in the different countries.

The devil is not as black as he is painted? On the positive relationship between food industry conspiracy beliefs and conscious food choices.

Previous research found that conspiracy beliefs were usually activated when individuals faced different types of psychological threats and that they led mainly to maladaptive individual and societal outcomes. In this research, we assumed that potential harmfulness of conspiracy beliefs may depend on the context, and we focused on the link between food industry conspiracy beliefs and conscious food choices. We hypothesized that food industry conspiracy beliefs may allow for a constructive attempt to protect oneself against real or imagined enemies (i.e., food industry companies) by conscious food choices (e.g., paying attention to how much the food products are processed). We tested this hypothesis among Polish participants (Study 1; N = 608; cross-sectional and Study 2; N = 790; experimental). Study 1 confirmed that context-specific conspiracy beliefs (but not general notions of conspiracy) are associated with adaptive consumer behaviors. Study 2 showed that inducing feelings of threat related to the possibility of purchasing food contaminated by a harmful bacteria (vs. control condition) increased food industry conspiracy beliefs, which were further positively linked to conscious food choices. We discuss the role of threat and conspiracy beliefs in adaptive consumer behaviors related to food choices.

Ecology or Health-How to Successfully Promote Palm Oil Free Products: A Comparison between Spain and Poland.

Palm oil, widely used in the food industry, is causing some concern due to its negative impact on the environment and human health. The goal of the conducted research was to answer the question of what would be a better strategy for the marketing communication of palm oil substitutes, its health benefits or its environmental friendliness? This article presents a research project exploring the potential of chocolate bread spread based on a saturated fat and palm oil substitute. The research was conducted on two samples of Spanish (n = 675) and Polish (n = 661) bread spread consumers. In the experimental study, consumers were presented with a description of a new chocolate spread entering the market, with references to (a) its health benefits or (b) its environmental benefits resulting from the absence of palm oil in the product. The results showed that ecology references in food-related marketing communication in Spain have a stronger influence on the consumer decision-making process than health references. In Poland, the effect of communication was moderated by an evaluation of a person's eating style and the individual level of eco-friendly behavior of the consumer.

The challenges arising from the COVID-19 pandemic and the way people deal with them. A qualitative longitudinal study.

The conducted qualitative research was aimed at capturing the biggest challenges related to the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. The interviews were carried out in March-June (five stages of the research) and in October (the 6th stage of the research). A total of 115 in-depth individual interviews were conducted online with 20 respondents, in 6 stages. The results of the analysis showed that for all respondents the greatest challenges and the source of the greatest suffering were: a) limitation of direct contact with people; b) restrictions on movement and travel; c) necessary changes in active lifestyle; d) boredom and monotony; and e) uncertainty about the future.

Relationship between Acceptance of Insects as an Alternative to Meat and Willingness to Consume Insect-Based Food-A Study on a Representative Sample of the Polish Population.

Despite their nutritional and ecological potential, insect-based food is rarely accepted by consumers. There may be a discrepancy between the consumers' understanding of the need to reduce meat consumption and their personal food preferences. Our goal was to investigate the relationship between the acceptance of insects as a meat substitute, the willingness to buy and consume insect-based food, and the underlying factors. The study was conducted on a representative sample of the Polish population, and as in previous studies, our results showed that men who are more familiar with entomophagy pay more attention to the environmental impact of their food choices, are convenience-orientated and are more willing to accept insects as a meat substitute. However, people with higher levels of food neophobia and disgust sensitivity and lower levels of variety-seeking tendency are less willing to consume insects. Our study showed that the acceptance of insects as an alternative to meat (general perspective) does not translate into a willingness to buy and eat them (individual perspective). Consumers who declare their acceptance of insects as a meat substitute might not be willing to purchase insects for their consumption.

No lockdown in the kitchen: How the COVID-19 pandemic has affected food-related behaviours.

The COVID-19 pandemic and especially the lockdowns coming with it have been a disruptive event also for food consumption. In order to study the impact of the pandemic on eating habits, self-reported changes in food-related behaviours were investigated in ten European countries by means of an online survey. A latent class cluster analysis distinguished five clusters and showed that different types of consumers can be distinguished based on how they react to the pandemic as regards their eating habits. While food-related behaviours were resilient for 60% of the sample, another 35% reported more enjoyment in cooking and eating, more time in the kitchen and more family meals. Among those, a slight majority also showed signs of more mindful eating, as indicated by more deliberate choices and increased consumption of healthy food, whereas a slight minority reported more consumption of indulgence food. Only 5% indicated less involvement with food. As the COVID-19 pandemic is a disruptive event, some of these changes may have habit-breaking properties and open up new opportunities and challenges for food policy and food industry.

The acceptance of Covid-19 tracking technologies: The role of perceived threat, lack of control, and ideological beliefs.

New technological solutions play an important role in preventing the spread of Covid-19. Many countries have implemented tracking applications or other surveillance systems, which may raise concerns about privacy and civil rights violations but may be also perceived by citizens as a way to reduce threat and uncertainty. Our research examined whether feelings evoked by the pandemic (perceived threat and lack of control) as well as more stable ideological views predict the acceptance of such technologies. In two studies conducted in Poland, we found that perceived personal threat and lack of personal control were significantly positively related to the acceptance of surveillance technologies, but their predictive value was smaller than that of individual differences in authoritarianism and endorsement of liberty. Moreover, we found that the relationship between the acceptance of surveillance technologies and both perceived threat and lack of control was particularly strong among people high in authoritarianism. Our research shows that the negative feelings evoked by the unprecedented global crisis may inspire positive attitudes towards helpful but controversial surveillance technologies but that they do so to a lesser extent than ideological beliefs.

Segmentation Based on Attitudes Toward Corporate Social Responsibility in Relation to Demographical Variables and Personal Values - Quantitative and Qualitative Study of Polish Consumers.

The purpose of the present research was to create market segmentation of Polish consumers that would capture differences in reactions to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), taking into account sociodemographic data and consumers' value structure. In order to better understand the extracted segments, a mixed method approach was adopted. The first quantitative study was conducted on a nationwide representative sample of Poles aged 18-55 years (N = 1055, CAWI survey). A subsequent qualitative stage covered 24 semi-structured in-depth individual interviews, with representatives of each segment identified in Study 1. Consequently, six segments of Poles were extracted and described, differing in knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about CSR: Sensible Optimists (15%), Sensitive Intellectuals (18%), Family Pragmatics (21%), Passive Poseurs (19%), Excluded and Frustrated (12%) and Corpo-Egoists (15%). The study showed both demographic and psychological differences in between segments. Segments with positive attitudes toward CSR are more female. Segment of least positive attitudes is manly and youngest one. However, results for age, education level and economic status are less conclusive. Personal values proved to be more useful in understanding different attitudes toward CSR than demography. Segments that are more open to CSR prize self-transcendence and maturity values, while less open segments are more oriented toward social status values.

Do negative emotions in social advertising really work? Confrontation of classic vs. EEG reaction toward advertising that promotes safe driving.

Social campaigns are persuasive messages that attempt to communicate positive ideas and practices. One of the main challenges in designing effective social campaigns is the need to compete with other advertisements for viewers' attention. One of the most widely used methods of drawing attention to social advertising is the use of negative emotions. However, the effectiveness of negative emotional appeals in social campaigns is still a topic of debates. The aim of the study was to use both declarative and neural (EEG) measures to examine whether increasing the intensity of negative emotions in a social campaign enhances its effectiveness linearly or only to a certain level (curvilinear relation). The experimental study was conducted (N = 62) with road safety campaign, using three different levels of negative emotional intensity. The results showed that even though advertising with the strongest negative stimuli evoked the strongest negative emotions, it had no significantly stronger influence on behavioral intention (driving less risky) than moderately negative stimuli. Moreover, neural reaction to the negative stimuli in advertising depended on driving style-people with risky driving style payed less attention to more threatening message (higher beta oscillations).

The Effect of Labelling and Visual Properties on the Acceptance of Foods Containing Insects.

Introducing insects as a source of nutrients (e.g., protein) plays a key role in many countries' environmental policies. However, westerners generally reject insects as an ingredient of food products and meals. The aim of our study was to assess if explicitly labelling food as containing insects and/or implying it by manipulating the appearance of food influences the participants' perception of food products or their behavioral reaction to such products. Participants were asked to try a range of foods, none of which contained ingredients derived from insects. However, the experimental conditions varied with regard to food labelling (insect content) and appearance (traces of insect-like ingredients). We observed the participants' non-verbal behavioral reactions to the foods. Next, the respondents filled in a questionnaire evaluating the food's properties. Additionally, we asked the participants to fill in a set of questionnaires measuring other variables (food neophobia, disgust, variety seeking, etc.) The results showed that products labelled as containing insects are consumed with reluctance and in lower quantities despite their appearance. In addition, people with lower general neophobia and a higher tendency to seek variety tried the insect-labelled samples sooner than people from the other groups. Recommendations for marketing strategies are provided.

You don't have to be rich to save money: On the relationship between objective versus subjective financial situation and having savings.

Saving is an important financial behavior that provides an individual with psychological security and boosts his/her overall sense of well-being. For this reason, scientists and practitioners have attempted to understand why some people save when others do not. One of the most common explanations for this phenomenon is that those individuals who earn more should be more willing to save their money. In line with this logic, people who have more money should be more likely to have savings. Considering the results of prior research, we expected objective financial situation (income) to be positively linked to having savings (i.e., propensity to have savings and the exact amount of savings). At the same time, however, we assumed that subjective financial situation (perception) should also be positively related to these variables. To test our assumptions, we conducted a nationwide representative survey (N = 1048) among Polish respondents, asking them about their objective and subjective financial situation. The results of a regression analysis showed that objective financial situation was indeed significantly positively related to having savings. However, subjective financial situation was also positively correlated with having savings (even when we controlled for objective financial situation and demographic variables). We discuss the implications of the links between objective versus subjective financial situations and having savings.

Future and Present Hedonistic Time Perspectives and the Propensity to Take Investment Risks: The Interplay Between Induced and Chronic Time Perspectives.

Willingness to take risk is one of the most important aspects of personal financial decisions, especially those regarding investments. Recent studies show that one's perception of time, specifically the individual level of Present Hedonistic and Future Time Perspectives (TPs), influence risky financial choices. This was demonstrated for both, Time Perspective treated as an individual trait and for experimentally induced Time Perspectives. However, on occasion, people might find themselves under the joint influence of both, chronic and situational Time Perspectives and little is known about interactions between them. The paper focuses on the interplay between chronic and induced levels of Future and Present Hedonistic TPs in explaining people's propensity to take investment risks. An experimental study using a Polish national random-quota sample was conducted. The results showed that situationally induced Future TP lowered the preferred level of portfolio riskiness while situationally induced Present Hedonistic TPs resulted in exactly the opposite effect, and that the higher level of chronic Present Hedonistic TP was linked to higher investment risk preferences. The role of the chronic Present Hedonistic TP was moderated by the situationally induced Future (approaching significance) and Present Hedonistic TPs. The induction of these TPs resulted in reduction of the propensity to take investment risks. The study adds to the literature on psychological factors influencing the propensity to take financial risk. The results are also important for researchers who experimentally manipulate variables that might be also considered as chronic traits. They indicate that whether the manipulation is congruent with one's natural tendencies may have a differential impact on subsequent measures.

Explicit Versus Implicit "Halal" Information: Influence of the Halal Label and the Country-of-Origin Information on Product Perceptions in Indonesia.

Halal refers to what is permissible in traditional Islamic law. Food that meets halal requirements is marked by a halal label on the packaging and should be especially attractive to those Muslims who follow the set of dietary laws outlined in the Quran. This research examines the role of the halal label (explicit cue) and the country-of-origin (COO) (implicit cue) in predicting positive product perceptions among Muslim consumers. We hypothesized that when an explicit sign of "halalness" (i.e., halal label) relating to a particular product is accompanied by an implicit sign of anti-"halalness" (i.e., non-Islamic COO information), Muslim consumers who pay attention to the dietary laws of Islam would have negative perceptions of such a product. We tested our assumptions in an experiment conducted among Indonesian participants who declared themselves as Muslims (n = 444). We manipulated: (a) exposure to the halal label, and (b) the COO information. Religion-based purchase behavior was measured as a moderator variable. Positive product perceptions were measured as a dependent variable. The results showed that the halal label itself had limited influence on product perceptions. However, we found that positive product perceptions significantly decreased among people who were high in religion-based purchase behavior in response to exposure to non-Islamic COO information accompanied by a halal label. In conclusion, people who are high (vs. low) in religion-based purchase behavior do not seem to trust halal-labeled food produced in a country with other than an Islamic tradition.

"Worse but Ours," or "Better but Theirs?" - The Role of Implicit Consumer Ethnocentrism (ICE) in Product Preference.

The goal of this project was to investigate whether consumer ethnocentrism is purely conscious mechanism based on ideology, as suggested by Shimp and Sharma (1987), or rather is an automatic, unconscious process. The aim of the project was an introduction of the Implicit Consumer Ethnocentrism (ICE) concept, measured by the Implicit Association Test (IAT). The goal of the four studies conducted was to investigate the following issues: (a) whether ICE - an automatic mechanism underlying the preference for local products over foreign - this could be observed next to the more ideologically based classic consumer ethnocentrism; (b) what happens when the consumer's automatic preference for local products (ICE) is confronted by objective evidence of the superiority of foreign products or by the inferiority of local products. It was assumed that ICE could be reduced when foreign products were associated with a higher level of competence than local products, and this could explain the preference for foreign products over local often observed in less developed countries. In study 1 the ICE for different product categories of existing brands was tested, and in study 2 the ICE was measured in the context of non-existent brands. Both studies showed a strong in-group brand preference and confirmed the existence of new phenomena - ICE. The results of studies 3 and 4 again indicated a strong, automatic in-group brand favoritism effect as measured by IAT - participants preferred local brands over foreign. However, the inclusion of well-known foreign brands associated with high competence reduced the IAT effect (in-group preference).