A partial reduction of Drp1 improves cognitive behavior and enhances mitophagy, autophagy and dendritic spines in a transgenic Tau mouse model of Alzheimer disease.

The purpose of our study is to understand the impact of a partial dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) on cognitive behavior, mitophagy, autophagy and mitochondrial and synaptic activities in transgenic Tau mice in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our laboratory reported increased levels of amyloid-beta (Aß) and phosphorylated Tau (P-Tau) and reported that abnormal interactions between Aß and Drp1, P-Tau and Drp1 induced increased mitochondrial fragmentation and reduced fusion and synaptic activities in AD. These abnormal interactions result in the proliferation of dysfunctional mitochondria in AD neurons. Recent research on mitochondria revealed that fission protein Drp1 is largely implicated in mitochondrial dynamics in AD. To determine the impact of reduced Drp1 in AD, we recently crossed transgenic Tau mice with Drp1 heterozygote knockout (Drp1+/-) mice and generated double mutant (P301LDrp1+/-) mice. In the current study, we assessed the cognitive behavior, mRNA and protein levels of mitophagy, autophagy, mitochondrial biogenesis, dynamics and synaptic genes, mitochondrial morphology and mitochondrial function and dendritic spines in Tau mice relative to double mutant mice. When compared with Tau mice, double mutant mice did better on the Morris Maze (reduced latency to find hidden platform, increased swimming speed and time spent on quadrant) and rotarod (stayed a longer period of time) tests. Both mRNA- and protein-level autophagy, mitophagy, mitochondrial biogenesis and synaptic proteins were increased in double mutant mice compared with Tau (P301L) mice. Dendritic spines were significantly increased; mitochondrial number was reduced and length was increased in double mutant mice. Based on these observations, we conclude that reduced Drp1 is beneficial in a symptomatic-transgenic Tau (P301L) mice.

Protective effects of BACE1 inhibitory ligand molecules against amyloid beta-induced synaptic and mitochondrial toxicities in Alzheimer's disease.

Amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides are the major drivers of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis, and are formed by successive cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the beta and gamma secretases. Mounting evidence suggests that Aß and mitochondrial structural and functional abnormalities are critically involved in the loss of synapses and cognitive decline, in patients with AD. In AD brain, state the sequential proteolytic cleavage of APP by beta secretase 1 enzyme (BACE1) and γ-secretase leads to the production and release of Aß40 and 42. BACE1 expression and activity increased in the brains of AD patients. Structurally, ß-secretase has a very large binding site (1000 Å) with fewer hydrophobic domains that makes a challenge to identify the specific targets/binding sites of BACE1. In the present study, we constructed a BACE1 pharmacophore with pepstatin and screened through molecular docking studies. We found one potential candidate (referred as ligand 1) that binds to the key catalytic residues of BACE1 and predicts to inhibit abnormal APP processing and reduce Aß levels in AD neurons. Using biochemical, molecular, transmission electron microscopy, immunoblotting and immunofluorescence analyses, we studied the protective effects of ligand 1 against Aß-induced synaptic and mitochondrial toxicities in mouse neuroblastoma (N2a) cells that express mutant APP. We found interaction between ligand 1 and BACE1 and this interaction decreased BACE1 activity, Aß40 and 42 levels. We also found increased mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial fusion and synaptic activity and reduced mitochondrial fission in ligand 1-treated mutant APP cells. Based on these results, we cautiously conclude that ligand 1 reduces Aß-induced mitochondrial and synaptic toxicities, and maintains mitochondrial dynamics and neuronal function in AD.

Mitochondrial division inhibitor 1 reduces dynamin-related protein 1 and mitochondrial fission activity.

The purpose of our study was to better understand the effects of mitochondrial-division inhibitor 1 (Mdivi-1) on mitochondrial fission, mitochondrial biogenesis, electron transport activities and cellular protection. In recent years, researchers have found excessive mitochondrial fragmentation and reduced fusion in a large number of diseases with mitochondrial dysfunction. Therefore, several groups have developed mitochondrial division inhibitors. Among these, Mdivi-1 was extensively studied and was found to reduce dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) levels and excessive mitochondrial fission, enhance mitochondrial fusion activity and protect cells. However, a recent study by Bordt et al. (1) questioned earlier findings of the beneficial, inhibiting effects of Mdivi-1. In the current study, we studied the protective effects of Mdivi-1 by studying the following: mRNA and protein levels of electron transport chain (ETC) genes; mitochondrial dynamics and biogenesis genes; enzymatic activities of ETC complexes I, II, III and IV; the mitochondrial network; mitochondrial size & number; Drp1 GTPase enzymatic activity and mitochondrial respiration (1) in N2a cells treated with Mdivi-1, (2) overexpressed with full-length Drp1 + Mdivi-1-treated N2a cells and (3) Drp1 RNA silenced+Mdivi-1-treated N2a cells. We found reduced levels of the fission genes Drp1 and Fis1 levels; increased levels of the fusion genes Mfn1, Mfn2 and Opa1; and the biogenesis genes PGC1α, nuclear respiration factor 1, nuclear respiratory factor 2 and transcription factor A, mitochondrial. Increased levels mRNA and protein levels were found in ETC genes of complexes I, II and IV genes. Immunoblotting data agreed with mRNA changes. Transmission electron microscopy analysis revealed reduced numbers of mitochondria and increased length of mitochondria (1) in N2a cells treated with Mdivi-1, (2) cells overexpressed with full-length Drp1 + Mdivi-1-treated N2a cells and (3) Drp1 RNA silenced+Mdivi-1-treated N2a cells. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that mitochondrial network was increased. Increased levels of complex I, II and IV enzymatic activities were found in all three groups of cells treated with low concentration of Mdivi-1. Mitochondrial function was increased and GTPase Drp1 activity was decreased in all three groups of N2a cells. These observations strongly suggest that Mdivi-1 is a Drp1 inhibitor and directly reduces mitochondrial fragmentation and further, Mdivi-1 is a promising molecule to treat human diseases with ETC complexes, I, II and IV.

Hippocampal mutant APP and amyloid beta-induced cognitive decline, dendritic spine loss, defective autophagy, mitophagy and mitochondrial abnormalities in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

The purpose of our study was to determine the toxic effects of hippocampal mutant APP and amyloid beta (Aß) in 12-month-old APP transgenic mice. Using rotarod and Morris water maze tests, immunoblotting and immunofluorescence, Golgi-cox staining and transmission electron microscopy, we assessed cognitive behavior, protein levels of synaptic, autophagy, mitophagy, mitochondrial dynamics, biogenesis, dendritic protein MAP2 and quantified dendritic spines and mitochondrial number and length in 12-month-old APP mice that express Swedish mutation. Mitochondrial function was assessed by measuring the levels of hydrogen peroxide, lipid peroxidation, cytochrome c oxidase activity and mitochondrial ATP. Morris water maze and rotarod tests revealed that hippocampal learning and memory and motor learning and coordination were impaired in APP mice relative to wild-type (WT) mice. Increased levels of mitochondrial fission proteins, Drp1 and Fis1 and decreased levels of fusion (Mfn1, Mfn2 and Opa1) biogenesis (PGC1α, NRF1, NRF2 and TFAM), autophagy (ATG5 and LC3BI, LC3BII), mitophagy (PINK1 and TERT), synaptic (synaptophysin and PSD95) and dendritic (MAP2) proteins were found in 12-month-old APP mice relative to age-matched non-transgenic WT mice. Golgi-cox staining analysis revealed that dendritic spines are significantly reduced. Transmission electron microscopy revealed significantly increased mitochondrial numbers and reduced mitochondrial length in APP mice. These findings suggest that hippocampal accumulation of mutant APP and Aß is responsible for abnormal mitochondrial dynamics and defective biogenesis, reduced MAP2, autophagy, mitophagy and synaptic proteins and reduced dendritic spines and hippocampal-based learning and memory impairments, and mitochondrial structural and functional changes in 12-month-old APP mice.

Hippocampal phosphorylated tau induced cognitive decline, dendritic spine loss and mitochondrial abnormalities in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

The purpose of our study was to understand the toxic effects of hippocampal phosphorylated tau in tau mice. Using rotarod and Morris water maze (MWM) tests, immunoblotting and immunofluorescence, Golgi-Cox staining and transmission electron microscopy, we assessed cognitive behavior, measured protein levels of mitochondrial dynamics, MAP2, total and phosphorylated tau, and quantified dendritic spines and mitochondrial number and length in 12-month-old tau mice with P301L mutation. Mitochondrial function was assessed by measuring the levels of H2O2, lipid peroxidation, cytochrome oxidase activity and mitochondrial ATP. MWM and rotarod tests revealed that hippocampal learning and memory and motor learning and coordination were impaired in tau mice relative to wild-type (WT) mice. Increased levels of mitochondrial fission proteins, Drp1 and Fis1 and decreased levels of mitochondrial fusion proteins, Mfn1, Mfn2 and Opa1 were found in 12-month-old tau mice relative to age-matched WT mice, indicating that the presence of abnormal mitochondrial dynamics in tau mice. Decreased levels of dendritic protein, MAP2 and increased levels of total and phosphorylated tau proteins were found in tau mice relative to WT mice. Mitochondrial function was defective. Golgi-Cox staining analysis revealed that dendritic spines are significantly reduced. Transmission electron microscopy revealed significantly increased mitochondrial numbers and reduced mitochondrial length in tau mice. These findings suggest that hippocampal accumulation of phosphorylated tau is responsible for abnormal mitochondrial dynamics and reducing dendritic protein MAP2 and dendritic spines and hippocampal based learning and memory impairments, and mitochondrial structural and functional changes in tau mice. Based on these observations, we propose that reduced hippocampal phosphorylated tau is an important therapeutic strategy for AD and other tauopathies.

Mutant APP and amyloid beta-induced defective autophagy, mitophagy, mitochondrial structural and functional changes and synaptic damage in hippocampal neurons from Alzheimer's disease.

The purpose of our study was to determine the toxic effects of hippocampal mutant APP (mAPP) and amyloid beta (Aß) in human mAPP complementary DNA (cDNA) transfected with primary mouse hippocampal neurons (HT22). Hippocampal tissues are the best source of studying learning and memory functions in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and healthy controls. However, investigating immortalized hippocampal neurons that express AD proteins provide an excellent opportunity for drug testing. Using quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting & immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy, we assessed messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels of synaptic, autophagy, mitophagy, mitochondrial dynamics, biogenesis, dendritic protein MAP2 and assessed mitochondrial number and length in mAPP-HT22 cells that express Swedish/Indiana mutations. Mitochondrial function was assessed by measuring the levels of hydrogen peroxide, lipid peroxidation, cytochrome c oxidase activity and mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate. Increased levels of mRNA and protein levels of mitochondrial fission genes, Drp1 and Fis1 and decreased levels fusion (Mfn1, Mfn2 and Opa1) biogenesis (PGC1α, NRF1, NRF2 & TFAM), autophagy (ATG5 & LC3BI, LC3BII), mitophagy (PINK1 & TERT, BCL2 & BNIPBL), synaptic (synaptophysin & PSD95) and dendritic (MAP2) genes were found in mAPP-HT22 cells relative to WT-HT22 cells. Cell survival was significantly reduced mAPP-HT22 cells. GTPase-Drp1 enzymatic activity was increased in mAPP-HT22 cells. Transmission electron microscopy revealed significantly increased mitochondrial numbers and reduced mitochondrial length in mAPP-HT22 cells. These findings suggest that hippocampal accumulation of mAPP and Aß is responsible for abnormal mitochondrial dynamics and defective biogenesis, reduced MAP2, autophagy, mitophagy and synaptic proteins & reduced dendritic spines and mitochondrial structural and functional changes in mAPP hippocampal cells. These observations strongly suggest that accumulation of mAPP and Aß causes mitochondrial, synaptic and autophagy/mitophagy abnormalities in hippocampal neurons, leading to neuronal dysfunction.

Mitochondria-targeted small molecule SS31: a potential candidate for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

The objective of our study was to better understand the protective effects of the mitochondria-targeted tetra-peptide SS31 against amyloid beta (Aß)-induced mitochondrial and synaptic toxicities in Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. Using intraperitoneal injections, we administered SS31 to an AD mouse model (APP) over a period of 6 weeks, beginning when the APP mice were 12 months of age. We studied their cortical tissues after SS31 treatment and determined that SS31 crosses the blood brain barrier and reaches mitochondrial sites of free radical production. We also determined: (1) plasma and brain levels of SS31, (2) mRNA levels and levels of mitochondrial dynamics, biogenesis proteins and synaptic proteins, (3) soluble Aß levels and immunoreactivity of mutant APP and Aß levels and (4) mitochondrial function by measuring H2O2, lipid peroxidation, cytochrome c oxidase activity and mitochondrial ATP. We found reduced mRNA expression and reduced protein levels of fission genes, and increased levels of mitochondrial fusion, biogenesis and synaptic genes in SS31-treated APP mice relative to SS31-untreated APP mice. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed reduced full-length mutant APP and soluble/insoluble Aß levels in the SS31-treated APP mice. Sandwich ELISA assays revealed significantly reduced soluble Aß levels in the SS31-treated APP mice relative to the untreated APP mice. Mitochondrial function was maintained in the SS31-treated APP mice over the 6 weeks of SS31 treatment compared with mitochondrial function in the untreated APP mice. Our findings indicate that SS31 treatment reduces Aß production, reduces mitochondrial dysfunction, maintains mitochondrial dynamics and enhances mitochondrial biogenesis and synaptic activity in APP mice; and that SS31 may confer protective effects against mitochondrial and synaptic toxicities in APP transgenic mice.

Aqua-soluble DDQ reduces the levels of Drp1 and Aß and inhibits abnormal interactions between Aß and Drp1 and protects Alzheimer's disease neurons from Aß- and Drp1-induced mitochondrial and synaptic toxicities.

The purpose of our study was to develop a therapeutic target that can reduce Aß and Drp1 levels, and also can inhibit abnormal interactions between Aß and Drp1 in AD neurons. To achieve this objective, we designed various compounds and their 3-dimensional molecular structures were introduced into Aß and Drp1 complex and identified their inhibitory properties against Aß-Drp1 interaction. Among all, DDQ was selected for further investigation because of 1) its best docking score and 2) its binding capability at interacting sites of Drp1 and Aß complex. We synthesized DDQ using retro-synthesis and analyzed its structure spectrally. Using biochemical, molecular biology, immunostaining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) methods, we studied DDQ's beneficial effects in AD neurons. We measured the levels of Aß and Drp1, Aß and Drp1 interaction, mRNA and protein levels of mitochondrial dynamics, biogenesis and synaptic genes, mitochondrial function and cell viability and mitochondrial number in DDQ-treated and untreated AD neurons. Our qRT-PCR and immunoblotting analysis revealed that reduced levels of mitochondrial fission and increased fusion, biogenesis and synaptic genes in DDQ-treated AD neurons. Our immunoblotting and immunostaining analyses revealed that Aß and Drp1 levels were reduced in DDQ-treated AD neurons. Interaction between Aß and Drp1 is reduced in DDQ-treated AD neurons. Aß42 levels were significantly reduced in DDQ-treated mutant APPSwe/Ind cells. Mitochondrial number is significantly reduced and mitochondrial length is significantly increased. Mitochondrial function and cell viability were maintained in AD neurons treated with DDQ. These observations indicate that DDQ reduces excessive mitochondrial fragmentation, enhances fusion, biogenesis and synaptic activity and reduces Aß42 levels and protects AD neurons against Aß-induced mitochondrial and synaptic toxicities.

Mitochondria-targeted molecules MitoQ and SS31 reduce mutant huntingtin-induced mitochondrial toxicity and synaptic damage in Huntington's disease.

The objective of this study was to determine the protective effects of the mitochondria-targeted molecules MitoQ and SS31 in striatal neurons that stably express mutant huntingtin (Htt) (STHDhQ111/Q111) in Huntington's disease (HD). We studied mitochondrial and synaptic activities by measuring mRNA and the protein levels of mitochondrial and synaptic genes, mitochondrial function, and ultra-structural changes in MitoQ- and SS31-treated mutant Htt neurons relative to untreated mutant Htt neurons. We used gene expression analysis, biochemical methods, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and confocal microscopy methods. In the MitoQ- and SS31-treated mutant Htt neurons, fission genes Drp1 and Fis1 were down-regulated, and fusion genes Mfn1, Mfn2 and Opa1 were up-regulated relative to untreated neurons, suggesting that mitochondria-targeted molecules reduce fission activity. Interestingly, the mitochondrial biogenesis genes PGC1α, PGC1ß, Nrf1, Nrf2 and TFAM were up-regulated in MitoQ- and SS31-treated mutant Htt neurons. The synaptic genes synaptophysin and PSD95 were up-regulated, and mitochondrial function was normal in the MitoQ- and SS31-treated mutant Htt neurons. Immunoblotting findings of mitochondrial and synaptic proteins agreed with the mRNA findings. TEM studies revealed decreased numbers of structurally intact mitochondria in MitoQ- and SS31-treated mutant Htt neurons. These findings suggest that mitochondria-targeted molecules MitoQ and SS31 are protective against mutant Htt-induced mitochondrial and synaptic damage in HD neurons, and these mitochondria-targeted molecules are potential therapeutic molecules for the treatment of HD neurons.

Protective effects of reduced dynamin-related protein 1 against amyloid beta-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and synaptic damage in Alzheimer's disease.

The purpose of our study was to understand the protective effects of reduced expression of dynamin-related protein (Drp1) against amyloid beta (Aß) induced mitochondrial and synaptic toxicities in Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression and pathogenesis. Our recent molecular and biochemical studies revealed that impaired mitochondrial dynamics-increased mitochondrial fragmentation and decreased fusion-in neurons from autopsy brains of AD patients and from transgenic AD mice and neurons expressing Aß, suggesting that Aß causes mitochondrial fragmentation in AD. Further, our recent co-immunoprecipitation and immunostaining analysis revealed that the mitochondrial fission protein Drp1 interacted with Aß, and this interaction increased as AD progressed. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that a partial deficiency of Drp1 inhibits Drp1-Aß interactions and protects Aß-induced mitochondrial and synaptic toxicities, and maintains mitochondrial dynamics and neuronal function in AD neurons. We crossed Drp1+/- mice with APP transgenic mice (Tg2576 line) and created double mutant (APPXDrp1+/-) mice. Using real-time RT-PCR and immunoblotting analyses, we measured mRNA expressions and protein levels of genes related to the mitochondrial dynamics, mitochondrial biogenesis and synapses from 6-month-old Drp1+/-, APP, APPXDrp1+/- and wild-type (WT) mice. Using biochemical methods, we also studied mitochondrial function and measured soluble Aß in brain tissues from all lines of mice in our study. Decreased mRNA expressions and protein levels of Drp1 and Fis1 (fission) and CypD (matrix) genes, and increased levels of Mfn1, Mfn2 and Opa1 (fusion), Nrf1, Nrf2, PGC1α, TFAM (biogenesis) and synaptophysin, PSD95, synapsin 1, synaptobrevin 1, neurogranin, GAP43 and synaptopodin (synaptic) were found in 6-month-old APPXDrp1+/- mice relative to APP mice. Mitochondrial functional assays revealed that mitochondrial dysfunction is reduced in APPXDrp1+/- mice relative to APP mice, suggesting that reduced Drp1enhances mitochondrial function in AD neurons. Sandwich ELISA assay revealed that soluble Aß levels were significantly reduced in APPXDrp1+/- mice relative to APP mice, indicating that reduced Drp1 decreases soluble Aß production in AD progression. These findings suggest that a partial reduction of Drp1 reduces Aß production, reduces mitochondrial dysfunction, and maintains mitochondrial dynamics, enhances mitochondrial biogenesis and synaptic activity in APP mice. These findings may have implications for the development of Drp1 based therapeutics for AD patients.

Reduced dynamin-related protein 1 protects against phosphorylated Tau-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and synaptic damage in Alzheimer's disease.

The purpose of our study was to understand the protective effects of a partial reduction of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) in Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression and pathogenesis. Increasing evidence suggests that phosphorylated Tau and mitochondrial abnormalities are involved in the loss of synapses, defective axonal transport and cognitive decline, in patients with AD. In the current study, we investigated whether a partial reduction of Drp1 protect neurons from phosphorylated Tau-induced mitochondrial and synaptic toxicities in AD progression. We crossed Drp1+/− mice with Tau transgenic mice (P301L line) and created double mutant (TauXDrp1+/−) mice. Using real-time RT-PCR, immunoblotting and immunostaining analyses, we measured mRNA expressions and protein levels of genes related to the mitochondrial dynamics­Drp1 and Fis1 (fission), Mfn1, Mfn2 and Opa1 (fusion), CypD (matrix), mitochondrial biogenesis­Nrf1, Nrf2, PGC1α and TFAM and synaptic­synaptophysin, PSD95, synapsin 1, synaptobrevin 1, neurogranin, GAP43 and synaptopodin in brain tissues from 6-month-old Drp1+/−, Tau, TauXDrp1+/− and wild-type mice. Using biochemical and immunoblotting methods, mitochondrial function and phosphorylated Tau were measured. Decreased mRNA and protein levels of fission and matrix and increased levels of fusion, mitochondrial biogenesis, and synaptic genes were found in 6-month-old TauXDrp1+/− mice relative to Tau mice. Mitochondrial dysfunction was reduced in TauXDrp1+/− mice relative to Tau mice. Phosphorylated Tau found to be reduced in TauXDrp1+/− mice relative to Tau mice. These findings suggest that a partial reduction of Drp1 decreases the production of phosphorylated Tau, reduces mitochondrial dysfunction, and maintains mitochondrial dynamics, enhances mitochondrial biogenesis and synaptic activity in Tau mice. Findings of this study may have implications for the development of Drp1 based therapeutics for patients with AD and other tauopathies.

Mitochondrial division inhibitor 1 protects against mutant huntingtin-induced abnormal mitochondrial dynamics and neuronal damage in Huntington's disease.

The objective of this study was to determine the protective effects of the mitochondrial division inhibitor 1 (Mdivi1) in striatal neurons that stably express mutant Htt (STHDhQ111/Q111) and wild-type (WT) Htt (STHDhQ7/Q7). Using gene expression analysis, biochemical methods, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and confocal microscopy methods, we studied (i) mitochondrial and synaptic activities by measuring mRNA and the protein levels of mitochondrial and synaptic genes, (ii) mitochondrial function and (iii) ultra-structural changes in mutant Htt neurons relative to WT Htt neurons. We also studied these parameters in Mdivil-treated and untreated WT and mutant Htt neurons. Increased expressions of mitochondrial fission genes, decreased expression of fusion genes and synaptic genes were found in the mutant Htt neurons relative to the WT Htt neurons. Electron microscopy of the mutant Htt neurons revealed a significantly increased number of mitochondria, indicating that mutant Htt fragments mitochondria. Biochemical analysis revealed defective mitochondrial functioning. In the Mdivil-treated mutant Htt neurons, fission genes were down-regulated, and fusion genes were up-regulated, suggesting that Mdivil decreases fission activity. Synaptic genes were up-regulated, and mitochondrial function was normal in the Mdivi1-treated mutant Htt neurons. Immunoblotting findings of mitochondrial and synaptic proteins agreed with mRNA findings. The TEM studies revealed that increased numbers of structurally intact mitochondria were present in Mdivi1-treated mutant Htt neurons. Increased synaptic and mitochondrial fusion genes and decreased fission genes were found in the Mdivi1-treated WT Htt neurons, indicating that Mdivi1 beneficially affects healthy neurons. Taken together, these findings suggest that Mdivi1 is protective against mutant Htt-induced mitochondrial and synaptic damage in HD neurons and that Mdivi1 may be a promising molecule for the treatment of HD patients.

RNA silencing of genes involved in Alzheimer's disease enhances mitochondrial function and synaptic activity.

An age-dependent increase in mRNA levels of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), the microtubule-associated protein Tau, and voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) genes are reported to be toxic to neurons affected by Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the underlying toxic nature of these genes is not completely understood. The purpose of our study was to determine the effects of RNA silencing of APP, Tau, and VDAC1 genes in AD pathogenesis. Using human neuroblastoma (SHSY5Y) cells, we first silenced RNA for APP, Tau, and VDAC1 genes, and then performed real-time RT-PCR analysis to measure mRNA levels of 34 genes that are involved in AD pathogenesis. Using biochemical assays, we also assessed mitochondrial function by measuring levels of H2O2 production, lipid peroxidation, cytochrome c oxidase activity, ATP production, and GTPase enzymatic activity. We found that increased mRNA expression of synaptic function and mitochondrial fission genes, and reduced levels of mitochondrial fusion genes in RNA silenced the SHSY5Y cells for APP, Tau and VDAC1 genes relative to the control SHSY5Y cells. In addition, RNA-silenced APP, Tau, and VDAC1 genes in SHSY5Y cells showed reduced levels of H2O2 production, lipid peroxidation, fission-linked GTPase activity, and increased cytochrome oxidase activity and ATP production. These findings suggest that a reduction of human APP, Tau, and VDAC1 may enhance synaptic activity, may improve mitochondrial maintenance and function, and may protect against toxicities of AD-related genes. Thus, these findings also suggest that the reduction of APP, Tau, and VDAC1 mRNA expressions may have therapeutic value for patients with AD.

MitoQ, a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant, delays disease progression and alleviates pathogenesis in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse model of multiple sclerosis.

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are involved in the progression and pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). MitoQ is a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant that has a neuroprotective role in several mitochondrial and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Here we sought to determine the possible effects of a systematic administration of MitoQ as a therapy, using an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model. We studied the beneficial effects of MitoQ in EAE mice that mimic MS like symptoms by treating EAE mice with MitoQ and pretreated C57BL6 mice with MitoQ plus EAE induction. We found that pretreatment and treatment of EAE mice with MitoQ reduced neurological disabilities associated with EAE. We also found that both pretreatment and treatment of the EAE mice with MitoQ significantly suppressed inflammatory markers of EAE, including the inhibition of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. MitoQ treatments reduced neuronal cell loss in the spinal cord, a factor underlying motor disability in EAE mice. The neuroprotective role of MitoQ was confirmed by a neuron-glia co-culture system designed to mimic the mechanism of MS and EAE in vitro. We found that axonal inflammation and oxidative stress are associated with impaired behavioral functions in the EAE mouse model and that treatment with MitoQ can exert protective effects on neurons and reduce axonal inflammation and oxidative stress. These protective effects are likely via multiple mechanisms, including the attenuation of the robust immune response. These results suggest that MitoQ may be a new candidate for the treatment of MS.

Abnormal interaction of VDAC1 with amyloid beta and phosphorylated tau causes mitochondrial dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease.

The purpose of our study was to determine the relationship between voltage-dependent anion channel 1 protein (VDAC1) and amyloid beta (Aß) and phosphorylated tau in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Using brain specimens from AD patients, control subjects and 6-, 12- and 24-month-old Aß precursor protein (APP) transgenic mice, we studied VDAC1 protein levels. Further, we also studied the interaction between VDAC1 and Aß (monomers and oligomers) and phosphorylated tau, using cortical issues from AD patients, control subjects, APP, APP/PS1 and 3XTg.AD mice. We also studied age- and VDAC1-linked, mutant APP/Aß-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in APP and non-transgenic wild-type (WT) mice. We found progressively increased levels of VDAC1 in the cortical tissues from the brains of patients with AD, relative to control subjects, and significantly increased levels of VDAC1 in the cerebral cortices of 6-, 12- and 24-month-old APP transgenic mice, relative to the age-matched control WT mice. Interestingly, we found VDAC1 interacted with Aß and phosphorylated tau in the brains from AD patients and from APP, APP/PS1 and 3XTg.AD mice. We found progressively increased mitochondrial dysfunction in APP mice relative to WT mice. These observations led us to conclude that VDAC1 interacts with Aß, and phosphorylated tau may in turn block mitochondrial pores, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction in AD pathogenesis. Based on current study observations, we propose that reduced levels of VDAC1, Aß and phosphorylated tau may reduce the abnormal interaction between VDAC1 and APP, VDAC1 and Aß, and VDAC1 and phosphorylated tau; and that reduced levels of VDAC1, Aß and phosphorylated tau may maintain normal mitochondrial pore opening and pore closure, ultimately leading to normal mitochondrial function, mitochondria supplying ATP to nerve terminals and boosting synaptic and cognitive function in AD.

Abnormal interaction between the mitochondrial fission protein Drp1 and hyperphosphorylated tau in Alzheimer's disease neurons: implications for mitochondrial dysfunction and neuronal damage.

We recently reported increased mitochondrial fission and decreased fusion, increased amyloid beta (Aß) interaction with the mitochondrial fission protein Drp1, increased mitochondrial fragmentation, impaired axonal transport of mitochondria and synaptic degeneration in neurons affected by AD. In the present study, we extended our previous investigations to determine whether phosphorylated tau interacts with Drp1 and to elucidate mitochondrial damage in the progression of AD. We also investigated GTPase activity, which is critical for mitochondrial fragmentation, in postmortem brain tissues from patients with AD and brain tissues from APP, APP/PS1 and 3XTg.AD mice. Using co-immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence analyses, for the first time, we demonstrated the physical interaction between phosphorylated tau and Drp1. Mitochondrial fission-linked GTPase activity was significantly elevated in the postmortem frontal cortex tissues from AD patients and cortical tissues from APP, APP/PS1 and 3XTg.AD mice. On the basis of these findings, we conclude that Drp1 interacts with Aß and phosphorylated tau, likely leading to excessive mitochondrial fragmentation, and mitochondrial and synaptic deficiencies, ultimately possibly leading to neuronal damage and cognitive decline. Treatment designed to reduce the expression of Drp1, Aß and/or phosphorylated tau may decrease the interaction between Drp1 and phosphorylated tau and the interaction between Drp1 and Aß, conferring protection to neurons from toxic insults of excessive Drp1, Aß and/or phosphorylated tau.

Mutant huntingtin's interaction with mitochondrial protein Drp1 impairs mitochondrial biogenesis and causes defective axonal transport and synaptic degeneration in Huntington's disease.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the link between mutant huntingtin (Htt) and neuronal damage in relation to mitochondria in Huntington's disease (HD). In an earlier study, we determined the relationship between mutant Htt and mitochondrial dynamics/synaptic viability in HD patients. We found mitochondrial loss, abnormal mitochondrial dynamics and mutant Htt association with mitochondria in HD patients. In the current study, we sought to expand on our previous findings and further elucidate the relationship between mutant Htt and mitochondrial and synaptic deficiencies. We hypothesized that mutant Htt, in association with mitochondria, alters mitochondrial dynamics, leading to mitochondrial fragmentation and defective axonal transport of mitochondria in HD neurons. In this study, using postmortem HD brains and primary neurons from transgenic BACHD mice, we identified mutant Htt interaction with the mitochondrial protein Drp1 and factors that cause abnormal mitochondrial dynamics, including GTPase Drp1 enzymatic activity. Further, using primary neurons from BACHD mice, for the first time, we studied axonal transport of mitochondria and synaptic degeneration. We also investigated the effect of mutant Htt aggregates and oligomers in synaptic and mitochondrial deficiencies in postmortem HD brains and primary neurons from BACHD mice. We found that mutant Htt interacts with Drp1, elevates GTPase Drp1 enzymatic activity, increases abnormal mitochondrial dynamics and results in defective anterograde mitochondrial movement and synaptic deficiencies. These observations support our hypothesis and provide data that can be utilized to develop therapeutic targets that are capable of inhibiting mutant Htt interaction with Drp1, decreasing mitochondrial fragmentation, enhancing axonal transport of mitochondria and protecting synapses from toxic insults caused by mutant Htt.

Mitochondria-targeted catalase reduces abnormal APP processing, amyloid ß production and BACE1 in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease: implications for neuroprotection and lifespan extension.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effects of the mitochondria-targeted antioxidant catalase (MCAT) and lifespan extension in mice that express amyloid beta (Aß). Using immunoblotting and immunostaining analyses, we measured the production of full-length amyloid precursor protein (APP), soluble APPα, C-terminal fragments CTF99 and CTF83, monomeric and oligomeric Aß, Aß deposits and beta site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), in different stages of disease progression in MCAT/AßPP and AßPP mice. Using quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and immunostaining analyses, we studied the expression of catalase, BACE1, the Alzheimer's disease (AD) markers, synaptophysin, APP, neprilysin, insulin-degrading enzyme and transthyretin in MCAT, AßPP, MCAT/AßPP and wild-type (WT) mice. Using the high pressure liquid chromatography analysis of 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine, we measured oxidative DNA damage in the cerebral cortical tissues from MCAT, AßPP, MCAT/AßPP and WT mice. We found that the AßPP transgenic mice that carried the human MCAT gene lived 5 months longer than did the AßPP mice. We also found that the overexpression of MCAT in the brain sections from the MCAT/AßPP transgenic mice significantly correlated with a reduction in the levels of full-length APP, CTF99, BACE1, Aß levels (40 and 42), Aß deposits and oxidative DNA damage relative to the brain sections from the AßPP mice. Interestingly, we found significantly increased levels of soluble APPα and CTF83 in the MCAT/AßPP mice, relative to the AßPP mice. These data provide direct evidence that oxidative stress plays a primary role in AD etiopathology and that in MCAT mice express Aß, MCAT prevents abnormal APP processing, reduces Aß levels and enhances Aß-degrading enzymes in mice at different ages, corresponding to different stages of disease progression. These findings indicate that mitochondria-targeted molecules may be an effective therapeutic approach to treat patients with AD.