Patterns and predictors of material hardship among poor families with children.

Experiences of material hardship vary across poor families, but little is understood about this variability. The present study aimed to distinguish subtypes of material hardship as well as which characteristics predict subtypes. Latent class analysis with data from a large, longitudinal study of families with youth children investigated subtypes of material hardship as well as predictors of subtypes. Multinomial logistic regression then predicted class membership used on known housing risk factors maternal IPV victimization, depression, and substance use. Analyses identified three distinct subtypes of material hardship: "Housing Insecure," "Food Insecure," and "Cost-Burdened but Managing." Maternal IPV victimization and depression reduced likelihood of membership in the "Managing" class, but no predictors distinguished families who become food versus housing insecure. Findings suggest widespread financial stress and complex tradeoffs for low-income families, who struggle to afford basic needs. Maternal safety and mental health prove crucial to families' coping abilities. Increased systemic supports targeting specific circumstances may promote stability and prevent more severe hardship.

Housing insecurity and employment stability: An investigation of working mothers.

Little evidence informs the relationship between housing insecurity and employment for working mothers. The present study aimed to identify variation in work schedules and supports, as well as the link from housing insecurity to employment experiences in a sample of at-risk mothers. Latent class analysis identified subtypes of employment stability; multinomial logistic regression estimated links from housing insecurity to class membership. Three subtypes of employment stability emerged, "Full-Time and Stable," "Full-Time and Unstable," and "Part-Time Weekend." Housing insecurity increased risk for being in the "Unstable" class relative to the other classes such that these mothers experienced stressful work schedules that offered little support or flexibility for family and child needs. Identifying and intervening on housing insecurity can promote stable employment. Increased workplace supports such as paid leave, flexible schedules, and antidiscrimination training can better enable mothers to juggle the competing demands of motherhood and work.

Informal supports, housing insecurity, and adolescent outcomes: Implications for promoting resilience.

Adolescents in low-income, marginalized families are vulnerable to behavior problems that impede healthy functioning and threaten long-term well-being. Informal supports may fill an important gap for these households as they navigate financial and social stressors. Instrumental support from social networks and neighborhood cohesion may promote family stability and youth well-being; further, these informal supports may promote resilience to housing insecurity, which is linked with a range of adverse adolescent outcomes. The present study utilized data from a large sample of at-risk families with children (N = 2425) to investigate whether instrumental support and neighborhood cohesion predicted adolescent behavior problems over 10 years and whether these links were mediated by housing insecurity. Results of structural equation modeling with latent variables showed direct links from instrumental support to anxious/depressed behaviors and from neighborhood cohesion to aggressive behaviors, as well as an indirect link from instrumental support to aggressive behavior via housing insecurity. Findings suggest informal supports are an important source of resilience for low-income families who may be excluded from or are reluctant to engage with formal social systems. Further, stable, connected communities with highly embedded social networks can promote housing stability and youth well-being in a virtuous cycle.

Solving Homelessness from a Complex Systems Perspective: Insights for Prevention Responses.

Homelessness represents an enduring public health threat facing communities across the developed world. Children, families, and marginalized adults face life course implications of housing insecurity, while communities struggle to address the extensive array of needs within heterogeneous homeless populations. Trends in homelessness remain stubbornly high despite policy initiatives to end homelessness. A complex systems perspective provides insights into the dynamics underlying coordinated responses to homelessness. A constant demand for housing assistance strains service delivery, while prevention efforts remain inconsistently implemented in most countries. Feedback processes challenge efficient service delivery. A system dynamics model tests assumptions of policy interventions for ending homelessness. Simulations suggest that prevention provides a leverage point within the system; small efficiencies in keeping people housed yield disproportionately large reductions in homelessness. A need exists for policies that ensure reliable delivery of coordinated prevention efforts. A complex systems approach identifies capacities and constraints for sustainably solving homelessness.

The Impact of Housing Instability on Child Maltreatment: A Causal Investigation.

More than a half million children are confirmed as victims of maltreatment by the child welfare system each year. Children from unstably housed families are over-represented in child mal-treatment reports, and a growing body of evidence links housing problems to maltreatment and Child Protective Services (CPS); investigation. The present study applies two propensity score analysis approaches-greedy matching and propensity score weighting-to data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study to move toward a causal explanation of child mal-treatment behaviors among mothers in low-income households. Utilizing two separate methods to correct for overt selection bias, the present study finds that housing instability leads to a small increase in maltreatment behaviors, yet this small positive net impact on child maltreatment does not fully explain the over-representation of unstably housed families in the child welfare system. Families experiencing housing problems likely have a range of needs that require earlier, targeted intervention to mitigate consequences of poverty, domestic violence, and maternal depression. Child welfare services should invest resources in housing assistance programs in-house as well as through partnerships with local public housing authorities to stabilize families, reduce housing-related strain on caregivers, and promote family preservation.

Housing and Child Welfare: Emerging Evidence and Implications for Scaling up Services.

Inadequate housing threatens family stability in communities across the United States. This study reviews emerging evidence on housing interventions in the context of scale-up for the child welfare system. In child welfare, scale-up refers to the extent to which fully implemented interventions sustainably alleviate family separations associated with housing instability. It incorporates multiple aspects beyond traditional measures of effectiveness including costs, potential reach, local capacities for implementation, and fit within broader social services. The framework further encompasses everyday circumstances faced by service providers, program administrators, and policymakers who allocate resources under conditions of scarcity and uncertainty. The review of current housing interventions reveals a number of systemic constraints for scale-up in child welfare. Reliance on rental assistance programs limits capacity to address demand, while current practices that target the most vulnerable families may inadvertently diminish effectiveness of the intervention and increase overall demand. Alternative approaches that focus on homelessness prevention and early intervention must be tested in conjunction with community initiatives to increase accessibility of affordable housing. By examining system performance over time, the scalability framework provides an opportunity for more efficient coordination of housing services within and outside of the child welfare system.

Homelessness and Aging Out of Foster Care: A National Comparison of Child Welfare-Involved Adolescents.

The present study represents the first large-scale, prospective comparison to test whether aging out of foster care contributes to homelessness risk in emerging adulthood. A nationally representative sample of adolescents investigated by the child welfare system in 2008 to 2009 from the second cohort of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-being Study (NSCAW II) reported experiences of housing problems at 18- and 36-month follow-ups. Latent class analyses identified subtypes of housing problems, including literal homelessness, housing instability, and stable housing. Regressions predicted subgroup membership based on aging out experiences, receipt of foster care services, and youth and county characteristics. Youth who reunified after out-of-home placement in adolescence exhibited the lowest probability of literal homelessness, while youth who aged out experienced similar rates of literal homelessness as youth investigated by child welfare but never placed out of home. No differences existed between groups on prevalence of unstable housing. Exposure to independent living services and extended foster care did not relate with homelessness prevention. Findings emphasize the developmental importance of families in promoting housing stability in the transition to adulthood, while questioning child welfare current focus on preparing foster youth to live.

Family and housing instability: Longitudinal impact on adolescent emotional and behavioral well-being.

This study investigated the longitudinal effects of family structure changes and housing instability in adolescence on functioning in the transition to adulthood. A model examined the influence of household composition changes and mobility in context of ethnic differences and sociodemographic risks. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health measured household and residential changes over a 12-month period among a nationally representative sample of adolescents. Assessments in young adulthood measured rates of depression, criminal activity, and smoking. Findings suggested housing mobility in adolescence predicted poorer functioning across outcomes in young adulthood, and youth living in multigenerational homes exhibited greater likelihood to be arrested than adolescents in single-generation homes. However, neither family structure changes nor its interaction with residential instability or ethnicity related to young adult outcomes. Findings emphasized the unique influence of housing mobility in the context of dynamic household compositions.

Disparities in the Quality of Working Life Among Older Workers: Housing Conditions and Life Satisfaction With Latent Class Analysis.

Little empirical research informs understanding of the disparate active aging experiences among working older adults, especially in terms of the association with living circumstances and life satisfaction. To address this knowledge gap, this study used latent class analysis on data from the 2020 Health and Retirement Study (HRS) core interview and focused on 1,194 employed adults aged 50 and above. The results revealed four subtypes of the quality of working life in older workers. Notably, in contrast to the other identified classes, higher levels of housing satisfaction and feelings of neighborhood safety were significantly associated with an increased likelihood of being a member of the group of older adults with the highest work capacities and the healthy work-life balance. Furthermore, participation in the class characterized by the highest work capacity and a healthy work-life balance was related to the highest levels of overall life satisfaction.

Housing insecurity and adolescent behavioral outcomes: The mediating role of aggression in parenting.

BACKGROUND: Housing insecurity impacts millions of families with children each year and is linked with a range of adverse outcomes. Greater understanding of pathways linking housing insecurity with emotional and behavioral problem is needed to prevent enduring mental health problems. The Family Stress Model and Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model contribute understanding to the complex dynamics underlying development from childhood to adolescence in the context of economic hardship and parental strain. OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of harsh parenting in the relationship between childhood housing insecurity and adolescent behavior problems. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study, and included a sample of at-risk mothers with children from 20 large U.S. cities (N = 2719). METHODS: Structural equation modeling with latent variables tested direct and indirect pathways from housing insecurity at age 5 with emotional and behavioral problems at age 15 via intermediary harsh parenting at age 9. RESULTS: Housing insecurity directly predicted adolescent anxious/depressive behaviors (ß = 0.14, p < 0.01); and indirectly predicted rule-breaking (ß = 0.04, p < 0.01), aggressive (ß = 0.05, p < 0.01), and anxious/depressive (ß = 0.03, p < 0.05) behaviors via psychological aggression in parenting. CONCLUSIONS: Failure to address housing hardship among families with young children increases maltreatment risk and subsequent enduring mental health problems. Efforts to identify and mitigate housing hardship and maltreatment among at-risk families offer promise to promote long-term mental health in the transition from childhood to adolescence.

Domains of housing insecurity: Associations with child maltreatment risk.

BACKGROUND: Housing insecurity increases risk for child maltreatment, although links from specific domains of housing hardship to specific maltreatment types are not well understood. OBJECTIVE: The present study tested relationships between three domains of housing - quality, stability, and affordability - with three types of child maltreatment - psychological abuse, physical abuse, and neglect - in a sample of mothers with children age 5-9. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Data came from a large, longitudinal survey that recruited mothers in hospitals shortly after giving birth in 20 large American cities; five follow-up interviews occurred over 15 years. The analytic sample was limited to mothers who retained at least partial custody when children were aged 5 and 9 and participated in the In-Home sub-study (N = 1804). METHODS: A measurement model fit using confirmatory factory analysis estimated six latent constructs, while a path analysis estimated links from each housing domain to each maltreatment type. RESULTS: Housing affordability was associated with reduced psychological and physical abuse (ß = -1.10, p < 0.05 and ß = -0.66, p < 0.05 respectively), but not with neglect. Neither housing quality nor stability had any significant association with any maltreatment type. The only significant predictor of neglect was maternal depression. CONCLUSIONS: Housing affordability in particular may protect against maltreatment, but other domains of housing insecurity appear to have little to no effect controlling for other household factors. Findings highlight the need for increased affordable housing supply, as well as mental health supports for families cost-burdened by meeting basic needs.

Intimate Partner Violence Exposure and Adolescent Mental Health Outcomes: The Mediating Role of Housing Insecurity.

The present study investigated pathways from childhood exposure to mothers' intimate partner violence (IPV) to adolescent depression and anxiety. Further, the study examined whether housing insecurity mediated the link from IPV exposure to mental health outcomes. Data came from the Years 5, 9 and 15 interviews of the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study; the analytic sample was limited to mothers with at least partial custody of children (N = 2,425). Structural equation modeling with latent variables investigated research questions. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) identified observed indicators for latent constructs, and a path analysis tested direct and indirect pathways from IPV exposure to adolescent depression and anxiety. IPV exposure at age five was associated with increased housing insecurity at age nine, which was associated with increased adolescent depression and anxiety at age 15. Although IPV exposure was not directly associated with either mental health outcome, housing insecurity mediated the link from IPV exposure to adolescent depression. Findings point to the long-term consequences of exposure to intimate partner violence in childhood, highlighting pathways to mental disorder in adolescence. The present study emphasizes the need for policies that protect survivors of IPV from eviction and homelessness, empower them to leave abusers without fear of losing their housing, and promote healthy child development in the wake of family violence.

Meeting housing needs of child welfare-involved families: Policy insights from simulation modeling.

BACKGROUND: Inadequate housing contributes to the risk of family separation in nearly one-quarter of child maltreatment investigations. Child welfare struggles to identify and address the demand for housing assistance. A range of housing interventions shows promise for stabilizing families. Still, aid remains difficult to access, and little evidence exists for prioritizing households to interventions. Inefficient decisions about who to serve with scarce housing resources threaten to diminish resources and unintentionally place children at greater risk. OBJECTIVE: The present study leverages computational modeling to simulate the complex dynamics of coordinated child welfare response to inadequate housing. Simulations address the lack of microdata on current service delivery to inform policy-making that protects children from family insecurity. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTINGS: A series of simulated policy experiments test strategies for maximizing access to appropriate housing assistance and minimizing system-wide family separations using US estimates of housing insecurity and child welfare involvement. Models incorporate the feedback loops involved in seeking and waiting for needed services, using information on national rates of housing insecurity among child welfare-involved families. RESULTS: Results demonstrate population-level improvements in family stability from enhanced targeting of housing assistance to families most likely to benefit, plus expanded access to housing interventions. Neither improved screening procedures nor more housing supports alone improve child welfare outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Findings emphasize the importance of data-driven upstream policies for protecting inadequately housed children at risk of maltreatment.

The mediating role of housing insecurity in the relationship between neighborhood social cohesion and child maltreatment among low-income urban families.

BACKGROUND: Child abuse has deleterious impacts for children across their lifespan. Understanding the pathways in which child abuse occurs is critical for targeting prevention efforts. The trust and bonds between neighbors may play a preventive role against child abuse, with parents receiving support from those who are geographically close. Such relationships may guard against housing insecurity, which is related to child abuse. OBJECTIVE: The current study examines the relationships between social cohesion, housing insecurity, and child abuse. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: The study relies on data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal birth cohort study of 4898 families from 20 large urban cities. The study focuses on data from waves 3, 4, 5 when focal children were ages 3, 5, and 9 years. METHODS: Structural equation modeling is used to test the mediational relationship between neighborhood social cohesion at age 3, housing insecurity at age 5, and physical and psychological child abuse at age 9. RESULTS: The study found that social cohesion is related to lower levels of physical and psychological abuse, and these pathways are partially mediated through housing insecurity. CONCLUSIONS: The findings underscore the important role of neighborhoods in child maltreatment prevention.

Intimate Partner Violence and Depression of Mothers and Their Adolescent Children: The Roles of Housing Insecurity and System Contacts.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization is a prominent risk factor for depression among mothers. Less is known about the long-term relationship between IPV and maternal depression, impacts of IPV exposure on children, and mechanisms linking IPV with long-term mental health problems. IPV threatens stable housing for survivors, which increases likelihood of surveillance and sanctioning by formal systems - in particular, child welfare and criminal justice. The present study investigates whether housing insecurity and system contacts mediate the relationship between maternal IPV victimization and depression among both mothers and children 10 years later. Data comes from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study, a longitudinal survey of at-risk families with children. Structural equation modeling investigates pathways from IPV victimization of mothers to maternal and child depression via housing insecurity and contact with the child welfare and criminal justice systems. Results show IPV victimization is directly associated with housing insecurity, child welfare contact, and adolescent depression. Further, housing insecurity leading to both types of system contact mediates the link from IPV to maternal depression; in contrast, housing insecurity alone mediates the link from IPV to depression among children when they are 15 years old. Findings suggest IPV toward mothers has enduring, multigenerational effects on mental health that unfold over a long period following victimization. Complex pathways suggest housing insecurity and contact with punitive social systems that disproportionately impact low-income families explain in part the link from IPV to depression. Lack of housing options may deter survivors from leaving violent relationships, and housing insecurity in the wake of victimization may contribute to interactions with punitive social systems. Efforts to address housing, stigma, and psychological needs of IPV survivors are crucial to stabilize families.

Pathways to Adolescent Emotional and Behavioral Problems: An Examination of Maternal Depression and Harsh Parenting.

BACKGROUND: Maternal depression is linked with a range of child and adolescent outcomes. Prior research suggests adverse consequences for child and youth development, but less is known about the role of adverse parenting in the pathways from maternal depression to adolescent emotional and behavioral problems. OBJECTIVE: The present study leveraged a large, longitudinal survey of families across the U.S. to investigate whether harsh parenting mediated the links between maternal depression and adolescent delinquency and depression. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Data came from a national longitudinal survey of families with children born in large U.S. cities 1998-2000 in which mothers had at least partial custody of children (N = 2,719). METHODS: Structural equation modeling with latent variables estimated a measurement model using confirmatory factor analysis and a structural model testing direct and indirect pathways. RESULTS: Maternal depression was directly associated with both physical and psychological aggression in parenting (ß = 0.08, p < 0.001 and ß = 0.12, p < 0.001, respectively), and psychological aggression related directly with adolescent delinquency (ß = 0.24, p < 0.01). Furthermore, maternal depression was indirectly associated with adolescent delinquency via psychological aggression in parenting (ß = 0.03, p < 0.05). Physical aggression in parenting did not mediate links between maternal depression and either adolescent outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Findings provide insights into the parent-level drivers of adolescent emotional and behavioral outcomes. Screening for maternal depression and providing parenting support to vulnerable families offers promise for preventing adverse parenting and supporting healthy adolescent development.

Housing insecurity and adolescent well-being: Relationships with child welfare and criminal justice involvement.

BACKGROUND: Housing insecurity is endemic among low-income, marginalized families throughout the United States. Unstably housed families face increased likelihood of coming into contact with various social systems that upend family routines and norms, but the roles of these contacts in linking housing insecurity with long-term adolescent outcomes are unknown. OBJECTIVE: The present study tested whether family contacts with the criminal justice and child welfare systems mediated links between housing insecurity and adverse adolescent outcomes. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Data came from at-risk families with children born 1998-2000 in 20 large American cities followed over 15 years (N = 2,892). METHODS: Structural equation modeling estimated a measurement model using confirmatory factor analysis and a structural model testing direct and indirect pathways from housing insecurity to adolescent depression and delinquency via contact with the criminal justice and child welfare systems. RESULTS: Housing insecurity was associated with increased contact with both the criminal justice and child welfare systems. Housing insecurity at age 5 was directly associated with adolescent depression at age 15 (ß = 0.09, p < 0.05) and indirectly associated with adolescent delinquency via mothers' criminal justice (ß = 0.04, p < 0.05) and child welfare (ß = 0.07, p < 0.05) contacts. CONCLUSIONS: Families with high needs may face stigma or seek assistance that increases surveillance of families and thus likelihood for sanctioning by the criminal justice and child welfare systems. Providers and systems working with low-income, insecurely housed families must consider stigma faced by clients to avoid further marginalizing underserved populations.

Understanding Mechanisms Driving Family Homeless Shelter Use and Child Mental Health.

Homeless shelters throughout the U.S. are overcrowded and under-resourced. Families with children face substantial barriers to timely, successful shelter exit, and prolonged shelter stays threaten child mental health. This community-based system dynamics study explored barriers to timely, successful shelter exit and feedback mechanisms driving length of stay and child mental health risk. Group model building - a participatory systems science tool - and key informant interviews were conducted with clients (N = 37) and staff (N = 6) in three family homeless shelters in a Midwestern region. Qualitative content analysis with emergent coding identified key themes feedback loops. Findings indicated overcrowding delayed successful shelter exit; longer stays exacerbated crowding and stress in a vicious cycle. Furthermore, longer stays exacerbated child risk for mental disorder both directly and indirectly via crowding and caregiver stress. Capacity constraints limited families served, while contributing to ongoing unmet need. Future research should investigate the roles of these dynamic feedback relationships in the persistent vulnerability of homeless families. Service design should prioritize interventions that alleviate crowding and subsequent threats to mental health such as private or scattered-site shelter accommodations, affordable child care, and homelessness prevention to facilitate successful shelter exit and mitigate child mental health risk.

Scaling Up Housing Services Within the Child Welfare System: Policy Insights From Simulation Modeling.

OBJECTIVES: Housing insecurity and homelessness contribute to risk of maltreatment among one in five of the nearly 3.5 million children annually investigated for maltreatment in the United States. The Family Unification Program (FUP)-a federal initiative-connects inadequately housed families involved in child welfare with long-term rental subsidies to avoid foster placement. However, FUP remains understudied and underutilized with funding levels that serve only a fraction of eligible households. The present study uses system dynamics modeling to inform decision-making by testing policies for scaling FUP. METHOD: Simulations model delivery of FUP within child welfare from a feedback perspective. Calibrated on national data, models replicate trends in child welfare involvement from 2013 through 2016, and analyses forecast rates through 2019. Experiments test policies that enhance FUP. Outcomes track system-wide rates of family separation and returns on investment of expanded housing interventions. RESULTS: Dramatic expansions of FUP benefit more families and improve marginal return on investment. Yet, scale-up fails to reduce system-wide rates of family separation or generates substantial cost-savings. CONCLUSIONS: Simulations demonstrate structural challenges for scaling FUP. Constant demand for affordable housing constrains sustainable improvements in child protection. Child welfare responses to homelessness require innovations that reduce demand for housing services through prevention and earlier intervention.

Capability Traps Impeding Homeless Services: A Community-Based System Dynamics Evaluation.

Continuums of Care (CoCs) are the primary coordinating bodies for homeless services in the United States. However, the complexities involved in delivering homeless services across interagency networks challenges coordination and system improvement. CoC governance, planning, and service provision have received little attention in academic literature, and thus, Continuums attempt to manage complex systems with little guidance. This evaluation applied community-based system dynamics with homeless consumers and service providers to (1) identify capability traps that impede services delivery and to (2) engage stakeholders in a structured system improvement process. Results revealed organizational structures for governance and planning that inhibit system outcomes. Insights led to policy and practice recommendations for the homeless system.