Sjögren-Larsson syndrome is caused by mutations in the fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase gene.

Sjögren-Larsson syndrome (SLS) is an inherited neurocutaneous disorder characterized by mental retardation, spasticity and ichthyosis. SLS patients have a profound deficiency in fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase (FALDH) activity. We have now cloned the human FALDH cDNA and show that it maps to the SLS locus on chromosome 17p11.2. Sequence analysis of FALDH amplified from fibroblast mRNA and genomic DNA from 3 unrelated SLS patients reveals distinct mutations, including deletions, an insertion and a point mutation. The cloning of FALDH and the identification of mutations in SLS patients opens up possibilities for developing therapeutic approaches to ameliorate the neurologic and cutaneous symptoms of the disease.

In vitro assembly and structure of trichocyte keratin intermediate filaments: a novel role for stabilization by disulfide bonding.

Intermediate filaments (IF) have been recognized as ubiquitous components of the cytoskeletons of eukaryotic cells for 25 yr. Historically, the first IF proteins to be characterized were those from wool in the 1960s, when they were defined as low sulfur keratins derived from "microfibrils." These proteins are now known as the type Ia/type IIa trichocyte keratins that constitute keratin IF of several hardened epithelial cell types. However, to date, of the entire class of >40 IF proteins, the trichocyte keratins remain the only ones for which efficient in vitro assembly remains unavailable. In this paper, we describe the assembly of expressed mouse type Ia and type IIa trichocyte keratins into IF in high yield. In cross-linking experiments, we document that the alignments of molecules within reduced trichocyte IF are the same as in type Ib/IIb cytokeratins. However, when oxidized in vitro, several intermolecular disulfide bonds form and the molecular alignments rearrange into the pattern shown earlier by x-ray diffraction analyses of intact wool. We suggest the realignments occur because the disulfide bonds confer substantially increased stability to trichocyte keratin IF. Our data suggest a novel role for disulfide bond cross linking in stabilization of these IF and the tissues containing them.

Profilaggrin is a major epidermal calcium-binding protein.

Profilaggrin is a major highly phosphorylated protein component of the keratohyalin granules of mammalian epidermis. It contains 10 to 12 tandemly repeated filaggrin units and is processed into the intermediate filament-associated protein filaggrin by specific dephosphorylation and proteolysis during terminal differentiation of the epidermal cells. Later, filaggrin itself is degraded to free amino acids that participate in maintenance of epidermal flexibility. The present paper describes the structural organization of the 5' region of the human profilaggrin gene as well as the amino terminus of the profilaggrin protein. The primary profilaggrin transcript consists of three exons and two introns. The first exon (exon I) is only 54 bp and is untranslated. The coding sequences are distributed between exon II (159 bp) and exon III, which contains the information for 10 to 12 filaggrin repeats (972 bp each) and the 3' noncoding sequences. A very large intron separates exons I and II. The combination of a very short exon I with an unusually long intron 1 makes the structure of the profilaggrin gene unique among the epidermally expressed genes investigated so far. Comparison of the expression patterns revealed by primer extension and RNase protection analysis of foreskin epidermal and cultured keratinocyte RNAs suggests that alternately spliced messages, which are different from profilaggrin mRNA, are transcribed from the profilaggrin gene system at earlier stages of epidermal differentiation. The amino terminus of profilaggrin exhibits a significant homology to the small calcium-binding S100-like proteins. It contains two alpha-helical regions, termed EF-hands, that bind calcium in vitro. This is the first example of functional calcium-binding domains fused to a structural protein. We suggest that in addition to its role in filament aggregation and the maintenance of epidermal flexibility, profilaggrin may play an important role in the differentiation of the epidermis by autoregulating its own processing in a calcium-dependent manner or by participating in the transduction of calcium signal in epidermal cells.

Initiation of assembly of the cell envelope barrier structure of stratified squamous epithelia.

The cell envelope (CE) is a specialized structure that is important for barrier function in terminally differentiated stratified squamous epithelia. The CE is formed inside the plasma membrane and becomes insoluble as a result of cross-linking of constituent proteins by isopeptide bonds formed by transglutaminases. To investigate the earliest stages of assembly of the CE, we have studied human epidermal keratinocytes induced to terminally differentiate in submerged liquid culture as a model system for epithelia in general. CEs were harvested from 2-, 3-, 5-, or 7-d cultured cells and examined by 1) immunogold electron microscopy using antibodies to known CE or other junctional proteins and 2) amino acid sequencing of cross-linked peptides derived by proteolysis of CEs. Our data document that CE assembly is initiated along the plasma membrane between desmosomes by head-to-tail and head-to-head cross-linking of involucrin to itself and to envoplakin and perhaps periplakin. Essentially only one lysine and two glutamine residues of involucrin and two glutamines of envoplakin were used initially. In CEs of 3-d cultured cells, involucrin, envoplakin, and small proline-rich proteins were physically located at desmosomes and had become cross-linked to desmoplakin, and in 5-d CEs, these three proteins had formed a continuous layer extending uniformly along the cell periphery. By this time >15 residues of involucrin were used for cross-linking. The CEs of 7-d cells contain significant amounts of the protein loricrin, typically expressed at a later stage of CE assembly. Together, these data stress the importance of juxtaposition of membranes, transglutaminases, and involucrin and envoplakin in the initiation of CE assembly of stratified squamous epithelia.

Coiled-coil trigger motifs in the 1B and 2B rod domain segments are required for the stability of keratin intermediate filaments.

Many alpha-helical proteins that form two-chain coiled coils possess a 13-residue trigger motif that seems to be required for the stability of the coiled coil. However, as currently defined, the motif is absent from intermediate filament (IF) protein chains, which nevertheless form segmented two-chain coiled coils. In the present work, we have searched for and identified two regions in IF chains that are essential for the stability necessary for the formation of coiled-coil molecules and thus may function as trigger motifs. We made a series of point substitutions with the keratin 5/keratin 14 IF system. Combinations of the wild-type and mutant chains were assembled in vitro and in vivo, and the stabilities of two-chain (one-molecule) and two-molecule assemblies were examined with use of a urea disassembly assay. Our new data document that there is a region located between residues 100 and 113 of the 2B rod domain segment that is absolutely required for molecular stability and IF assembly. This potential trigger motif differs slightly from the consensus in having an Asp residue at position 4 (instead of a Glu) and a Thr residue at position 9 (instead of a charged residue), but there is an absolute requirement for a Glu residue at position 6. Because these 13 residues are highly conserved, it seems possible that this motif functions in all IF chains. Likewise, by testing keratin IF with substitutions in both chains, we identified a second potential trigger motif between residues 79 and 91 of the 1B rod domain segment, which may also be conserved in all IF chains. However, we were unable to find a trigger motif in the 1A rod domain segment. In addition, many other point substitutions had little detectable effect on IF assembly, except for the conserved Lys-23 residue of the 2B rod domain segment. Cross-linking and modeling studies revealed that Lys-23 may lie very close to Glu-106 when two molecules are aligned in the A(22) mode. Thus, the Glu-106 residue may have a dual role in IF structure: it may participate in trigger formation to afford special stability to the two-chain coiled-coil molecule, and it may participate in stabilization of the two-molecule hierarchical stage of IF structure.

Identification and purification of a novel serine/threonine messenger-independent growth-related protein kinase from lactating goat mammary gland.

A second messenger-independent serine/threonine protein kinase from lactating goat mammary gland is purified and characterized. The purification steps include: homogenization, ultracentrifugation, ammonium sulphate precipitation, DEAE-Sepharose, phosphocellulose, hydrophobic and Mono Q columns. On the final step of purification the enzyme is revealed as a single band of mol wt 45,000 on silver-stained SDS-PAGE. Mg2+ and K+ are necessary for its optimum activity. Phosvitin and casein are substrates for the enzyme but kemptide, RRREEETEEE, protamine and histone mixture are all poorly phosphorylated. The kinase is inhibited by quercetin, heparin, random tyrosine- and glutamic acid-containing polymers, Ca2+, NaF, 2,3-bis-phosphoglycerate. 1 mM Mn2+ affects positively the basal level of the kinase activity but 5 mM Mn2+ completely suppress the effect of 10 mM Mg2+. Km of this enzyme for ATP is 1.57 microM and pH optimum is from 6 to 7. Isolation of this kinase is facilitated by its unusually high affinity for phosphocellulose.

Isolation of high-mobility-group proteins HMG1 and HMG2 in non denaturing conditions and comparison of their properties with those of acid-extracted proteins.

We describe a method for isolation and purification of the chromosomal proteins HMG1 and HMG2 in non-denaturing conditions which overcomes the difficulties of the published methods concerning yield and purity. The method is based on salt extraction, selective precipitation with ammonium sulfate and DEAE-cellulose chromatography. All studied properties of these proteins (formation of protein tetramers, enhancement of micrococcal nuclease digestion of DNA and chromatin, and protection of 165-basepair DNA in chromatosome) differ significantly from the properties of HMG1 and 2 isolated under denaturing conditions.

Transglutaminase crosslinking and structural studies of the human small proline rich 3 protein.

The cell envelope (CE) is a vital structure for barrier function in terminally differentiated dead stratified squamous epithelia. It is assembled by transglutaminase (TGase) cross-linking of several proteins, including SPR3 in certain specialized epithelia normally subjected to mechanical trauma. We have expressed recombinant human SPR3 in order to study its cross-linking properties. It serves as a complete substrate for, and is cross-linked at similar efficiencies by, the three enzymes (TGases 1, 2 and 3) that are widely expressed in many epithelia. Multiple adjacent glutamines (4, 5, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 167) and lysines (6, 21, 164, 166 and 168) of only head and tail domain sequences are used for cross-linking. However, each enzyme preferentially uses certain residues on the head domain. Moreover, our in vitro data suggest a defined temporal order of cross-linking of SPR3 in vivo: It is first cross-linked by TGase 3 into short intra- and inter-chain oligomers which are later further cross-linked to the CE by TGase 1. To investigate the absence of cross-linking in the central domain (e.g. lysine in position 2 of each of the 16 repeats) we performed structural studies on recombinant SPR3 and on a synthetic peptide containing three repeats of the central domain. 2D H-1 NMR spectroscopy, TOCSY and ROESY, shows strong and medium intensity NOEs connectivities along the amino acid sequence with one weak long range NOE contact between Thr and Cys of subsequent repeats. Distance geometry computation on the basis of intensities of NOEs found generated 50 compatible structures grouped in three main families differing by the number of H-bonds. These measurements were repeated at different concentrations of trifluoroethanol (TFE)-water mixture, an alpha-helical promoting solvent, in order to check the stability of the conformations determined; no changes were observed up to 50% TFE in solution. Also temperature changes did not produce any variation in the ROESY spectrum in the same condition as above. The NMR and circular dichroism data strongly indicate the presence of an ordered (not alpha-helix nor beta-sheet) highly flexible structure in the eight amino acids repetitive units of SPR3, confirming the prediction of one possible beta-turn per each repeating unit. Thus, biochemical and biophysical data, strongly support SPR3 to function as a flexible cross-bridging protein to provide tensile strength or rigidity to the CE of the stratified squamous epithelia in which it is expressed.

Keratin intermediate filament structure. Crosslinking studies yield quantitative information on molecular dimensions and mechanism of assembly.

One of the major obstacles to solving the full three-dimensional structure of keratin intermediate filaments (KIF) is the determination of the exact mode(s) of alignment of nearest-neighbor molecules; this in turn requires precise information of the lengths of the non-alpha-helical linker segments within the coiled-coil alpha-helical heterodimer molecule. In this study, we have induced lysine-lysine and cysteine-cysteine crosslinks between keratin intermediate filament molecules in small assembly-competent oligomers, isolated them and then characterized the natures and locations of the crosslinks. Of more than 100 found, 21 quantitatively major crosslinks were used to obtain the relative axial alignments of rod domain segments by least-squares fitting methods. Three dominant modes of alignment were found. In each case the molecules are antiparallel with the first involving molecules in approximate register (stagger = -0.2 nm), the second involving molecules staggered so as to bring the 1B segments into approximate alignment (stagger = -16.1 nm), and the third involving molecules staggered so as to bring the 2B segments into approximate alignment (stagger = 28.2 nm). In addition, the data enable quantitative estimates to be made for the first time of the lengths of the non-coiled-coil segments (L1 = 2.5 nm, L12 = 1.6 nm, L2 = 0.8 nm), and the total length of the rod domain (46.0 nm). Alignment of molecules according to these parameters permits construction of a two-dimensional surface lattice which displays a 1.6 nm (10 or 11 residue) overlap between similarly directed molecules. Together, the data predict six important overlapping sequence regions that recur about 16 times per 46 nm of filament length. Interestingly, synthetic peptides corresponding to these sequences, singly or in combination, significantly interfere with keratin filament structural integrity. These results thus represent the most significant set of structural constraints for KIF yet available and provide insights into how disease-causing mutations disrupt filaments and their organization in cells.

Mutations in the H1 and 1A domains in the keratin 1 gene in epidermolytic hyperkeratosis.

In the autosomal dominant disorder epidermolytic hyperkeratosis, the structural integrity of the keratin intermediate filaments is altered in the suprabasal layers of the epidermis. We and others have used genetic linkage studies and mutation analysis to establish that single amino acid substitutions in either the keratin 1 or keratin 10 chains can cause epidermolytic hyperkeratosis. However, a larger database of mutations is required to better understand the relationship between specific mutations in these keratin chains and their effect on keratin filament structure. A larger database will also provide a catalog that may be useful for genetic counseling purposes. In this paper, we report the identification of three new mutations of the keratin 1 chain of epidermolytic hyperkeratosis probands in highly conserved residues in the H1 or beginning of the 1A rod domain segments. These correspond to regions involved in molecular overlaps between neighboring molecules in keratin filaments. Using an in vitro assay, synthetic peptides bearing these substitutions show diminished capacity to disassemble preformed filaments in vitro in comparison to the wild type peptides. Moreover, analyses of all mutations in epidermolytic hyperkeratosis known to date demonstrate remarkable clustering in the molecular overlap region. We conclude that non-conservative substitutions in the overlap region are likely to interfere with normal keratin filament structure and function, leading to pathology.

Involvement of protein HMG1 in DNA replication.

Antibodies against HMG1 inhibit the incorporation of [3H]thymidine in Ehrlich ascites cell nuclei. By the use of specific inhibitors it is shown that HMG1 is needed for the action of the replicative DNA polymerase and not for the reparative one. This is supported by the fact that the addition of exogenous HMG1 to the nuclei enhances the replication process.

Small proline-rich protein 1 is the major component of the cell envelope of normal human oral keratinocytes.

Oral keratinocytes of buccal and gingival tissues undergo a terminal differentiation program to form a protective epithelial barrier as non-keratinized or parakeratinized stratified cells. We have examined the protein composition of cell envelopes (CEs) from normal human buccal and gingival tissues as well as keratinocytes from normal human gingival cells grown in culture. Biochemical and sequencing analyses reveal that the CEs contain 60-70% small proline-rich protein 1a/b (SPR1a/b), together with smaller amounts of involucrin, annexin I and several other known CE proteins. The data imply a specialized role for SPR1 proteins in the unique barrier function requirements of oral epithelia.

Protein HMG1 is different from a DNA helix unwinding protein in calf thymus.

A number of criteria were used--chromatography on columns with single-stranded and double-stranded DNA, electrophoresis, peptide analysis, immunological tests and thermal denaturation of DNA--to show that protein (high mobility group) HMG1 and an unwinding protein from calf thymus are two distinct, unrelated proteins. While both proteins are thought to be related to DNA replication this might involve different mechanisms of action.

Direct evidence that involucrin is a major early isopeptide cross-linked component of the keratinocyte cornified cell envelope.

Involucrin was the first protein to be identified as a likely constituent of the insoluble cornified cell envelope (CE) of stratified squamous epithelia. However, to date, direct isolation from CEs of involucrin cross-linked by way of the transglutaminase-induced isopeptide bond has not been reported. We have treated human foreskin CEs with methanol/KOH (saponification) to hydrolyze off much of the lipids. By immunogold electron microscopy, this exposed large amounts of involucrin epitopes as well as of desmoplakin, a desmosomal structural protein. About 20% of the total CE protein could be solubilized by proteolytic digestion after saponification, of which involucrin was the most abundant. Subsequent amino acid sequencing revealed many peptides involving involucrin cross-linked either to itself or to a variety of other known CE protein components, including cystatin alpha, desmoplakin, elafin, keratins, members of the small proline-rich superfamily, loricrin, and unknown proteins related to the desmoplakin family. Specific glutamines or lysines of involucrin were used to cross-link the different proteins, such as glutamines 495 and 496 to desmoplakin, glutamine 288 to keratins, and lysines 468, 485, and 508 and glutamines 465 and 489 for interchain involucrin cross-links. Many identical peptides were obtained from immature CEs isolated from the inner living cell layers of foreskin epidermis. The multiple cross-linked partners of involucrin provide experimental confirmation that involucrin is an important early scaffold protein in the CE. Further, these data suggest that there is significant redundancy in the structural organization of the CE.

Ceramides are bound to structural proteins of the human foreskin epidermal cornified cell envelope.

An important component of barrier function in human epidermis is contributed by ceramides that are bound by ester linkages to undefined proteins of the cornified cell envelope (CE). In this paper, we have examined the protein targets for the ceramide attachment. By partial saponification of isolated foreskin epidermal CEs followed by limited proteolysis, we have recovered several lipopeptides. Biochemical and mass spectroscopic characterization revealed that all contained near stoichiometric amounts of ceramides of masses ranging from about 690 to 890 atomic mass units, of which six quantitatively major species were common. The array of ceramides was similar to that obtained from pig skin, the composition of which is known, thereby providing strong indirect data for their fatty acid and sphingosine compositions. The recovered peptides accounted for about 20% of the total foreskin CE ceramides. By amino acid sequencing, about 35% of the peptides were derived from ancestral glutamine-glutamate-rich regions of involucrin, an important CE structural protein. Another 18% derived from rod domain sequences of periplakin and envoplakin, which are also known or suspected CE proteins. Other peptides were too short for unequivocal identification. Together, these data indicate that involucrin, envoplakin, periplakin, and possibly other structural proteins serve as substrates for the attachment of ceramides by ester linkages to the CE for barrier function in human epidermis.

The proteins elafin, filaggrin, keratin intermediate filaments, loricrin, and small proline-rich proteins 1 and 2 are isodipeptide cross-linked components of the human epidermal cornified cell envelope.

The cornified cell envelope (CE) is a 15-nm thick layer of insoluble protein deposited on the intracellular side of the cell membrane of terminally differentiated stratified squamous epithelia. The CE is thought to consist of a complex amalgam of proteins cross-linked by isodipeptide bonds formed by the action of transglutaminases, but little is known about how or in which order the several putative proteins are cross-linked together. In this paper, CEs purified from human foreskin epidermis were digested in two steps by proteinase K, which released as soluble peptides about 30% and then another 35% of CE protein mass, corresponding to approximately the outer third (cytoplasmic surface) and middle third, respectively. Following fractionation, 145 unique peptides containing two or more sequences cross-linked by isodipeptide bond(s) were sequenced. Based on these data, most (94% molar mass) of the outer third of CE structure consists of intra- and interchain cross-linked loricrin, admixed with SPR1 and SPR2 proteins as bridging cross-links between loricrin. Likewise, the middle third of CE structure consists largely of cross-linked loricrin and SPR proteins, but is mixed with the novel protein elafin which also forms cross-bridges between loricrin. In addition, cross-links involving loricrin and keratins 1, 2e, and 10 or filaggrin were recovered in both levels. The data establish for the first time that these several proteins are indeed cross-linked protein components of the CE structure. In addition, the data support a model for the intermediate to final stages of CE assembly: the proteins elafin, SPR1 and SPR2, and loricrin begin to be deposited on a preformed scaffold; later, elafin deposition decreases as loricrin and SPR accumulation continues to effect final assembly. The recovery of cross-links involving keratins further suggests that the subjacent cytoplasmic keratin intermediate filament-filaggrin network is anchored to the developing CE during these events.

Conservation of the structure of keratin intermediate filaments: molecular mechanism by which different keratin molecules integrate into preexisting keratin intermediate filaments during differentiation.

During development and differentiation, the intermediate filament component of the cytoskeleton of many cells and tissues is rebuilt by a dynamic exchange process in which one set of protein chains is replaced by another, without recourse to creation of a new network. One major example is the replacement of keratin 5/keratin 14 (K5/K14) keratin intermediate filaments (KIFs) by K1/K10 KIFs during terminal differentiation in the epidermis. The present work was undertaken to explore how this may occur. We have induced lysine-lysine cross-links with disulfosuccinimidyl tartrate in K5/K14 KIFs in order to determine the axial dimensions and relative axial alignments of the K5/K14 molecules. Many of the cross-links induced in subfilamentous oligomers containing one, two, or three molecules were also found in the intact KIF, indicating that the body of data thus generated provides physiologically relevant information on the structural organization in the KIF. A least-squares analysis using as data the positions of lysine residues involved in 23 induced cross-links has allowed the axial alignments of the various coiled-coil segments in the rod domain to be determined. Three modes of antiparallel alignment of two neighboring molecules were found: A11 (staggered by -16.7 nm), A22 (staggered by 28.8 nm), and A12 (almost in register; staggered by only 0.3 nm). Since the axial repeat length is about 1 nm less than the molecular length, the data require a fourth mode of molecule alignment, termed ACN, in which similarly directed molecules are overlapped by the equivalent of about 5-10 residues.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Diversity of intermediate filament structure. Evidence that the alignment of coiled-coil molecules in vimentin is different from that in keratin intermediate filaments.

Although vimentin intermediate filaments (IF) are morphologically similar to all other IF types, cells have evolved different ways of manipulating vimentin and keratin IF. The structural basis for such differences is unknown. We have explored this by use of cross-linking experiments on vimentin oligomers, polymers, and intact IF to determine the axial length of vimentin molecules and the degrees to which neighboring molecules are aligned in IF. Our data reveal that the homodimer vimentin molecule (43.9 nm) is clearly shorter than a keratin heterodimer molecule (46.2 nm). Vimentin assemblies contain three modes of antiparallel molecular alignments: A11 and A22 in two-molecule or larger oligomeric assemblies, in which the two molecules are staggered so as to bring their 1B and 2B rod domain segments, respectively, into register; and A12 in higher order molecular assemblies in which the two neighboring molecules are largely overlapped. Since the repeat axial length of the vimentin assemblies (42.6 nm) is less than the molecular length, this means there is an overlap (designated as alignment ACN) of about 1 nm (5-10 residues) between the end of the 2B and beginning of the 1A rod domain segments of similarly directed molecules in the IF. Interestingly, these four modes of nearest neighbor molecular alignments also occur in keratin IF. However, the degree of stagger of alignments in the A11 and A22 modes is different (staggers of -19.5 for vimentin versus -16.6 nm for keratin, and 23.3 and 28.6 nm, respectively). Two-dimensional surface lattice maps of the two IF types are very similar, except for differences in molecule alignments and different axial repeats of 21.4 nm in vimentin and 22.6 nm in keratin IF. Although vimentin-keratin hybrid molecules can be induced to form in vitro, they do not assemble into higher order structures. The data suggest that vimentin and keratin are incapable of assembly into IF in vitro or in vivo simply because their molecules are of different axial lengths and because the exact axial alignments of neighboring molecules are different.

Biochemical evidence that small proline-rich proteins and trichohyalin function in epithelia by modulation of the biomechanical properties of their cornified cell envelopes.

The cornified cell envelope (CE) is a specialized structure involved in barrier function in stratified squamous epithelia, and is assembled by transglutaminase cross-linking of several proteins. Murine forestomach epithelium undergoes particularly rigorous mechanical trauma, and these CEs contain the highest known content of small proline-rich proteins (SPRs). Sequencing analyses of these CEs revealed that SPRs function as cross-bridgers by joining other proteins by use of multiple adjacent glutamines and lysines on only the amino and carboxyl termini and in functionally non-polar ways. Forestomach CEs also use trichohyalin as a novel cross-bridging protein. We performed mathematical modeling of amino acid compositions of the CEs of mouse and human epidermis of different body sites. Although the sum of loricrin + SPRs was conserved, the amount of SPRs varied in relation to the presumed physical requirements of the tissues. Our data suggest that SPRs could serve as modifiers of a composite CE material composed of mostly loricrin; we propose that increasing amounts of cross-bridging SPRs modify the structure of the CE, just as cross-linking proteins strengthen other types of tissues. In this way, different epithelia may use varying amounts of the cross-bridging SPRs to alter the biomechanical properties of the tissue in accordance with specific physical requirements and functions.