Role of the adenylate system and glycolytic flux in the control of protein synthesis in isolated rat lung cells.

(1) Glucose stimulates the incorporation of amino acids into protein in lung cells isolated by digestion of the lung stroma with collagenase. This effect reflects mainly an increase in protein synthesis since no effect of glucose had been found to the uptake of amino acid precursors and, although glucose decreases the rate of intracellular proteolysis by 15%, this effect cannot account for the increased incorporation of radioactivity into proteins. Furthermore, glucose did not induce any significant change in the intracellular content of valine. (2) For glucose to act on protein synthesis, it must be glycolyzed since its stereoisomer, L-glucose, which is not metabolized by lung cells, has no effect. (3) The mechanism of glucose action does not seem to be related simply to variations of cellular ATP content or energy charge. The following arguments seem to support this conclusion: (i) glucose does not bring about significant variations in the concentration of reactants of the adenylate system; (ii) the increase in protein synthesis induced by glucose in energy-depleted cells correlates with a rise in ATP content and energy charge; however, adenosine, which increases ATP levels in a form quantitatively similar to glucose, is unable to affect protein synthesis: (iii) glucose also accelerates the incorporation of amino acids into proteins in adenosine-treated lung cells in which the ATP concentration was almost double that of the control and the energy charge was considerably elevated, ruling out the possibility that a rise in the steady-state concentration of ATP and/or energy charge alone could be responsible for the acceleration of protein synthesis. (4) It can be concluded that the effect of glucose in increasing protein synthesis in lung cells is dependent on some signal arising from its breakdown and not to variations in the concentration of reactants or energy charge of the adenylate system.

Fatty acid-glucose interaction in the control of protein synthesis by isolated rat lung cells.

(1) The addition of long chain fatty acids to the incubation medium of isolated rat lung cells produced a dose-dependent inhibition of protein labelling from L-[3H]valine. Maximal rate changes were observed at fatty acids levels within the range of their physiological concentration. (2) The effect of fatty acids on protein labelling does not seem to be mediated by their oxidation. The following observations seem to support this conclusion: (a) the rate of fatty acid oxidation by lung cells was remarkably low, so that no significant variations in the state of reduction of the NAD system were detected; (b) there was no correspondence in the dose-response patterns of fatty acid oxidation and inhibition of protein labelling; (c) octanoate was much more actively oxidized than oleate, however the latter was more effective in decreasing protein labelling. (3) An apparent relationship between the length of the fatty chain and its ability to inhibit protein labelling seems to exist. The longer the chain the stronger the inhibitory effect observed. (4) The effect of fatty acid on protein labelling seems to be mediated by a cellular energy depletion secondary to an inhibition of the respiratory chain. Their ability to decrease oxygen uptake and adenine nucleotide content was also proportional to the chain length. (5) Glucose, which apparently acted by increasing energy production at substrate level phosphorylation, partially prevented the inhibitory effect of fatty acid on protein labelling. This observation supports the point of view that fatty acids do not act in decreasing protein labelling by perturbing directly the protein synthesis machinery but decreasing the phosphorylation potential.

Molecular analysis of a putative transposable retroelement from the Zea genus with internal clusters of tandem repeats.

The molecular characterization of a recently discovered family of long repetitive sequences, termed ZLRS, is described. These elements belong to the class of moderate dispersed repetitive DNA and are specific to the Zea genus. An 8089-bp sequence from a Zea diploperennis ZLRS element have been elucidated. Sequence analysis reveals the presence of a long terminal repeat-like region, two clusters of different tandem repeats and several ORFs. On these grounds, ZLRS could be considered a new member of the superfamily of transposable retroelements. Tandems are present in the majority of ZLRS elements, they show an important stem-loop secondary structure predicted by the computer and their sequence conservation suggests a functional role.

A new family of repetitive nucleotide sequences is restricted to the genus Zea.

We have isolated a new family of moderately repetitive nucleotide sequences (about 2500 copies per haploid genome) specific to the genus Zea and absent in other graminaceous species. These sequences are interspersed in the genome and they show the same genomic organization pattern and similar copy number in all the Zea species examined. These two facts, consistency in the copy number and the same organization pattern, would indicate on the one hand that these sequences were amplified before the divergence of Zea species, and on the other hand that maize and all the teosintes could be considered as the same evolutionary population. Independent clones corresponding to the repetitive sequences have been isolated and sequenced from a genomic library of the teosinte, Zea diploperennis. The repeats, flanked by HaeIII sites, are more than 70% G + C-rich, on average 253 bp long and show 78% similarity to each other. These repetitive sequences are in a highly methylated-C context and they present some features resembling those of coding sequences, such as high CpG and low TpA content, and similar codon usage to maize genes in one of the reading frames. Moreover, the repetitive probe hybridizes with RNA extracted from different tissues of maize and from teosinte, indicating that these repeats or similar ones are present in transcribed sequences.

Discovery of a Zdel transposable element in Zea species as a consequence of a retrotransposon insertion.

Nucleotide sequences similar to del1 retrotransposon from Lilium henryi have been discovered in Zea diploperennis as a consequence of finding a Zea retrotransposon element inserted into one of them. These sequences named Zdel (Zea del1-like) elements are present in all the Zea species (about 100 copies per haploid genome) and in Tripsacum dactyloides and absent from closely related genera. Sequences corresponding to gag and protease domains from a Zdel element have been identified. The Zdel protease sequence shows a conserved active site motif (DT/SG) from aspartic proteases. The high level of DNA methylation found in Zdel elements may be related to the observed absence of transcriptional activity.

Characterization of a gene encoding an abscisic acid-inducible type-2 lipid transfer protein from rice.

The cloning and sequence analysis of a novel gene that encodes a type 2 non-specific lipid transfer-like protein (LTP) from rice is reported. Sequence analysis revealed an ORF encoding a protein showing characteristics of the LTP proteins. However, rice LTP2 is more similar to heterologous LTPs than to rice LTP1, supporting the existence of two distinct families of plant LTPs. Ltp2 mRNA is accumulated only in mature seeds. In vegetative tissues, mRNA was only detected after treatment with abscisic acid (ABA), mannitol or NaCl. Transient expression experiments that the 61 nucleotides upstream of the TATA box, containing two ACGT boxes and the motif I, are sufficient for ABA responsiveness of the Ltp gene.

Induction of mRNA accumulation corresponding to a gene encoding a cell wall hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein by fungal elicitors.

The Hrgp (hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein) gene codes in maize for one of the most abundant proteins of the cell wall. HRGPs may contribute to the structural support of the wall and they have also been involved in plant defense mechanisms. This second aspect has been tested for the Hrgp gene in maize where, in contrast with the situation in dicot species, the gene is encoded by a single-copy sequence. Hrgp mRNA accumulation is induced in maize suspension-cultured cells by elicitors, isolated either from maize pathogenic or non-pathogenic fungi. The induction of Hrgp mRNA accumulation by elicitor extracted from Fusarium moniliforme has been studied in detail. The level of induction depends on elicitor concentration and remains high until at least 24 h. Ethylene and protein phosphorylation appear to be involved in the transduction pathway of Hrgp gene activation by the F. moniliforme elicitor but not by 5 microM methyl jasmonate or 1 mM salycilic acid. Different compounds known to participate in plant stress responses such as ascorbic acid or reduced glutathione have also a positive effect on Hrgp mRNA accumulation.

Protein encoded by ORF I of cauliflower mosaic virus is part of the viral inclusion body.

Coding sequences of ORF I from cauliflower mosaic virus were cloned in an Escherichia coli expression vector. A protein derived from this ORF was used to raise antibodies in rabbits. Immunoblots revealed that in infected plants the ORF I protein with an apparent molecular weight of 41 kDa is part of the viral inclusion bodies and is absent from purified virus particles. Amino acid sequence homologies of the ORF I protein with other proteins are discussed.

Subcellular localization of glutelin-2 in maize (Zea mays L.) endosperm.

Accumulation of the 28 KD protein of the glutelin-(G2) fraction was followed in developing maize endosperm, using sodium dodecylsulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and peak integration of scanned gels. 28 KD glutelin-2 could already be observed from 15 days after pollination and its accumulates reached a plateau during the second half of the development period. The process of biosynthesis of 28 KD glutelin-2 and zeins occurs in a parallel way. Subcellular fractions obtained from linear sucrose gradient centrifugation of developing maize endosperms were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting using a serum reacting against glutelin-2 and 14 KD Z2. Glutelin-2 was found to be present in the protein bodies when subcellular fractionation was carried out without dithiothreitol (DTT). The presence of a reducing agent causes the elution of glutelin-2 from protein bodies. Immunocytochemical labelling using the protein A-colloidal gold technique in protein bodies incubated with anti-G2 IgG revealed that G2 is located mainly in the periphery of protein bodies. These results are interpreted as indicating a structural role for glutelins in protein bodies.

What makes Grande1 retrotransposon different?

Grande1 elements constitute a family of Ty3 retrotransposons present in the Zea genus in more than 1000 copies in Zea diploperennis and maize. The sequences of three Grande1 flanking regions, two from Z. diploperennis and one from maize, reveal transposable elements as insertion targets, suggesting a preferential integration of Grande1 elements into other transposable elements. These retrotransposons are remarkable for their large size of around 14 kb, which is a consequence of a very large 3' region of more than 7 kb. Atypical entities within this region are two arrays of unrelated tandem repeats with potential stable stem-loop structures. A large portion of the same region is occupied by ORFs, although only ORF23, whose function is unknown, is presumably transcribed in antisense orientation to the reverse transcriptase ORF. Only ORF23 has a codon usage similar to the one tabulated for highly-expressed maize genes. Correspondingly, the transcript of 900 b that hybridizes with ORF23 probes is found in all the maize tissues explored. This is despite the high level of methylation in the DNA of Grande1. Genomic RNA has not been detected in any tissue or situation studied, probably reflecting a non-functional retrotransposon. The origin of ORF23 and the remainder 3' region might be due to a transduction event.

Different mechanisms generating sequence variability are revealed in distinct regions of the hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein gene from maize and related species.

The sequences of the genes coding for a hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein from two varieties of maize (Zea mays, Ac1503 and W22), a teosinte (Zea diploperennis) and sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) have been obtained and compared. Distinct patterns of variability have been observed along their sequences. The 500 bp region immediately upstream of the TATA box is highly conserved in the Zea species and contains stretches of sequences also found in the sorghum gene. Further upstream, significant rearrangements are observed, even between the two maize varieties. These observations allow definition of a 5' region, which is common to the four genes and is probably essential for their expression. The 3' end shows variability, mostly due to small duplications and single nucleotide substitutions. There is an intron present in this region showing a high degree of sequence conservation among the four genes analyzed. The coding region is the most divergent, but variability arises from duplications of fragments coding for similar protein blocks and from single nucleotide substitutions. These results indicate that a number of distinct mechanisms (probably point mutation, transposon insertion and excision, homologous recombination and unequal crossing-over) are active in the production of sequence variability in maize and related species. They are revealed in different parts of the gene, probably as the result of the different types of functional constraints acting on them, and of the specific nature of the sequence in each region.

Analysis of regulatory elements of the promoter and the 3' untranslated region of the maize Hrgp gene coding for a cell wall protein.

Hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP) are structural components of the plant cell wall. Hrgp genes from maize and related species have a conserved 500 bp sequence in the 5'-flanking region, and all Hrgp genes from monocots have an intron located in the 3' untranslated region. To study the role of these conserved regions, several deletions of the Hrgp gene were fused to the beta-glucuronidase ( GUS) gene and used to transform maize tissues by particle bombardment. The overall pattern of GUS activity directed by sequential deletions of the Hrgp promoter was different in embryos and young shoots. In embryos, the activity of the full-length Hrgp promoter was in the same range as that of the p35SI promoter construct, based on the strong 35S promoter, whereas in the fast-growing young shoots it was 20 times higher. A putative silencer element specific for young shoots was found in the -1,076/-700 promoter region. Other major cis elements for Hrgp expression are probably located in the regions spanning -699/-510 and -297/-160. Sequences close to the initial ATG and mRNA leader were also important since deletion of the region -52/+16 caused a 75% reduction in promoter activity. The presence of the Hrgp intron in the 3' untranslated region changed the levels of GUS activity directed by the Hrgp and the 35S promoters. This pattern of activity was complex, and was dependent on the promoter and cell type analysed.

Characterization of a barley gene coding for an alpha-amylase inhibitor subunit (CMd protein) and analysis of its promoter in transgenic tobacco plants and in maize kernels by microprojectile bombardment.

A gene coding for a barley CMd protein was isolated from a genomic library using a cDNA probe encoding the wheat CM3 protein. Promoter sequence analysis reveals motifs found in genes specifically expressed in endosperm and aleurone cells, as well as TATA and other putative functional boxes. 720 bp of the Hv85.1 CMd protein gene promoter, when fused to a gus coding region, were unable to direct GUS activity in the seeds of transgenic tobacco plants. In contrast, the same construction delivered into immature maize kernels by microprojectile bombardment was able to direct expression of GUS in the outermost cell layers of maize endosperm in both a tissue-specific and a developmentally determined manner.

Chromosome localization and characterization of a family of long interspersed repetitive DNA elements from the genus Zea.

This paper describes the characterization and chromosomal distribution of new long repetitive sequences present in all species of the genus Zea. These sequences constitute a family of moderately repetitive elements ranging approximately from 1350 to 1700 copies per haploid genome in modern maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) and teosinte (Zea diploperennis), respectively. The elements are long, probably larger than 9 kb, and they show a highly conserved internal organization among Zea subspecies and species. The elements are present in all maize chromosomes in an interspersed pattern of distribution, are absent from centromeric and pericentric heterochromatin, and with some clustering in the distal regions of chromosome arms.

Regulation of the maize HRGP gene expression by ethylene and wounding. mRNA accumulation and qualitative expression analysis of the promoter by microprojectile bombardment.

The expression of the maize gene coding for a hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein (HRGP) has been studied by measuring the mRNA accumulation after wounding or ethylene treatment. RNA blot and in situ hybridization techniques have been used. The temporal and tissue-specific expression has been observed: the cells related to the vascular system show the more intense HRGP mRNA accumulation. Transcriptional constructions of the maize HRGP promoter have been tested on different maize tissues by microbombarding. A 582 bp promoter is able to direct the expression of the gus gene on calli and young leaves. Constructions having shorter promoter sequences lose this ability. The 582 bp construction retains the general specificity of expression observed for the HRGP gene.

Expression of a maize cell wall hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein gene in early leaf and root vascular differentiation.

The spatial pattern of expression for a maize gene encoding a hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein (HRGP) was determined by in situ hybridization. During normal development of roots and leaves, the expression of the gene was transient and particularly high in regions initiating vascular elements and associated sclerenchyma. Its expression was also associated with the differentiation of vascular elements in a variety of other tissues. The gene encoded an HRGP that had been extracted from the cell walls of maize suspension culture cells and several other embryonic and post-embryonic tissues. The gene was present in one or two copies in different varieties of maize and in the related monocots teosinte and sorghum. A single gene was cloned from maize using a previously characterized HRGP cDNA clone [Stiefel et al. (1988). Plant Mol. Biol. 11, 483-493]. In addition to the coding sequences for the HRGP and an N-terminal signal sequence, the gene contained a single intron in the nontranslated 3' end.