A multicentre study on the clinical utility of post-traumatic amnesia duration in predicting global outcome after moderate-severe traumatic brain injury.

BACKGROUND: Past research shows that post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) duration is a particularly robust traumatic brain injury (TBI) outcome predictor, but low specificity limits its clinical utility. OBJECTIVES: The current study assessed the relationship between PTA duration and probability thresholds for Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) levels. METHODS: Data were prospectively collected in this multicentre observational study. The cohort was a consecutive sample of rehabilitation patients enrolled in the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research funded TBI Model Systems (n = 1332) that had documented finite PTA duration greater than 24 h, and 1-year and 2-year GOS. RESULTS: The cohort had proportionally more Good Recovery (44% vs 39%) and less Severe Disability (19% vs 23%) at year 2 than at year 1. Longer PTA resulted in an incremental decline in probability of Good Recovery and a corresponding increase in probability of Severe Disability. When PTA ended within 4 weeks, Severe Disability was unlikely (<15% chance) at year 1, and Good Recovery was the most likely GOS at year 2. When PTA lasted beyond 8 weeks, Good Recovery was highly unlikely (<10% chance) at year 1, and Severe Disability was equal to or more likely than Moderate Disability at year 2. CONCLUSIONS: Two PTA durations, 4 weeks and 8 weeks, emerged as particularly salient GOS probability thresholds that may aid prognostication after TBI.

Alcohol and drug use among young persons with traumatic brain injury.

The pre- and postinjury patterns of alcohol and illicit drug use of 87 persons with traumatic brain injury ages 16 to 20 were examined. Follow-up data were collected at two time intervals averaging 8 and 28 months postinjury. A comparison with large-sample studies revealed that patients had preinjury drinking patterns similar to those in the general population. A review of data provided evidence of a decline in alcohol use at initial follow-up; however, preinjury and second follow-up alcohol use patterns were similar. Analyses suggested that drinking quantity and frequency increased over time, perhaps eventually returning to postinjury levels. A review of the literature and the findings of the present investigation indicate that men and persons with a history of preinjury heavy drinking are at greatest risk for long-term alcohol abuse postinjury. Postinjury illicit drug use rates remained relatively low, falling below 10% at both follow-up intervals. Among persons taking prescribed medications, 17% reported moderate or heavy drinking at second follow-up.

Traumatic brain injury: family response and outcome.

Family outcome following traumatic brain injury has been the subject of investigation for nearly two decades. Researchers have reported on samples from Israel, Scotland, Denmark, England, and the United States. Cultural diversity as well as differences in design, assessment methods, injury characteristics, and definitions have contributed to difficulties establishing definitive conclusions. Findings indicate that patients' levels of emotional and personality disturbances are associated with levels of family disturbance, and are relatively more significant than physical disability. Undeniably, the long-term sequelae of injury have a long-term negative impact on families. Unfortunately, little has been done to establish the nature of family outcomes for patients younger than age 17, siblings, and less than severe injuries. Recent advances including development of valid measurement tools, definitions established through consensus, and multi-center collaborative research networks are promising and contribute to the likelihood of imminent progress.

Interrelationships between crime, substance abuse, and aggressive behaviours among persons with traumatic brain injury.

Professionals have suggested that aggressiveness, substance abuse, and criminality contribute to poor outcomes after brain injury. There is considerable research regarding post-injury aggressive behaviour, but limited information concerning criminal behaviour and alcohol use patterns. With a sample of 327 patients varying in severity of traumatic brain injury, the present investigation examined alcohol use patterns, arrest histories, behavioural characteristics, and psychiatric treatment histories. Relative to the uninjured population, analysis revealed relatively high incidence of heavy drinking, both pre- and post-injury, among patients with a history of arrest. Increases in abstinence rates were found regardless of arrest history. In addition, a history of arrest was associated with a greater likelihood of psychiatric treatment. Findings also indicated relatively high levels of aggressive behaviours. Discussion focuses on implications for evaluation, rehabilitation, and future research.

Validation of a neurobehavioral functioning inventory for adults with traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the validity of a neurobehavioral inventory for adults with traumatic brain injury. DESIGN: Construct validity was examined by applying principal components and confirmatory factor analytic procedures. Internal consistency of factors was examined using Cronbach's alpha. Criterion-related validity was examined by comparing inventory scale scores with neuropsychological and personality test variables. SETTINGS: Medical center outpatient clinic. PARTICIPANTS: 520 consecutive adult patients with traumatic brain injury were administered psychological and neuropsychological tests; 520 informants, primarily family members, completed the neurobehavioral inventory. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Neurobehavioral inventory with items describing symptoms and daily living problems; scale scores were compared with a set of neuropsychological measures and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory scores. RESULTS: Principal components and confirmatory factor analytic procedures identified six scales with a total of 70 items. The primary scale inclusion criterion required a minimum factor loading of .40. Chronbach's alpha analysis revealed acceptably high internal reliability for all scales ranging from .86 to .95. Scale scores were statistically compared with patients' scores on neuropsychological and personality tests. Poor neuropsychological test performance and greater levels of psychopathology were associated with greater frequency of perceived neurobehavioral problems. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that the neurobehavioral inventory is a promising means of investigating informants' perceptions of outpatients' everyday problems. Such information can serve as a complement to historical information, test results, and information from standardized interviews to develop a holistic perspective of patients. Differential weighting of items, association of scales with other measures, and validation with other neurological patient populations are recommended avenues for future research.

A multi-center analysis of rehospitalizations five years after brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the incidence and cause of rehospitalizations 1 and 5 years after traumatic brain injury. DESIGN: Descriptive statistics were computed in a prospective study of the cause and incidence of rehospitalizations at years 1 and 5 after injury. Analysis of variance and chi-square tests were used to identify factors relating to rehospitalization; factors included length of stay, admission and discharge functional status, payer source, medical complications, injury severity, and demographics. SETTING: Seventeen medical centers in the federally sponsored Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems. In each setting, the continuum of care includes emergency medical services, intensive and acute medical care, inpatient rehabilitation, and a spectrum of community rehabilitation services. PARTICIPANTS: Eight hundred ninety-five rehabilitation patients admitted to acute care within 24 hours of traumatic brain injury between 1989 and 1999 were examined at 1-year follow-up. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Incidence and cause of rehospitalization at 1 and 5 years after injury. RESULTS: The incidence of rehospitalization ranged from 22.9% 1 year after injury to 17.0% at 5 years after injury. At 1 year after injury, a third of the rehospitalizations were for elective reasons. At 5 years after injury, the incidence of readmissions for seizures and psychiatric difficulties and general health maintenance increased substantially. T-tests and chi-square analyses were performed on the 5-year follow-up data to compare those rehospitalized for unplanned reasons with those not rehospitalized. CONCLUSIONS: There remains a relatively high rate of rehospitalization in the long term after traumatic brain injury. The costs of rehospitalization should be considered when evaluating the long-term consequences of injury.

Functional outcomes of older adults with traumatic brain injury: a prospective, multicenter analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate improvement rates and medical services costs in older brain injured adults relative to younger patients. DESIGN: Descriptive statistics were computed in a prospective comparative study of 50 patients 55 years and older and 50 patients 18 to 54 years old matched for gender and injury severity (number of days in coma, admission Glasgow Coma Score, intracranial pressure). Independent t tests were performed to examine differences between the two samples on specific variables. SETTING: Five medical centers in the federally sponsored Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems Project that provide emergency medical services, intensive and acute medical care, inpatient rehabilitation, and a spectrum of community rehabilitation services. PARTICIPANTS: Patients were selected from a national database of 531 rehabilitation inpatients admitted to acute care within 8 hours of traumatic brain injury between 1989 and 1994. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Disability Rating Scale, Functional Independence Measure, Rancho Los Amigos Levels of Cognitive Functioning Scale, length of stay, acute care and rehabilitation charges, and discharge disposition. RESULTS: Older persons averaged a significantly longer rehabilitation length of stay, higher total rehabilitation charges, and a lower rate of change on functional measures. No significant differences between groups were found for acute care length of stay, daily rehabilitation charges, acute care charges (daily or total), or discharge disposition. CONCLUSIONS: Although older persons demonstrated functional changes, the cost of change was substantially higher than for younger patients, coincident with longer lengths of stay. These higher overall charges and slower rates of change may effect changes in referral and management patterns.

Benefits of an inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation program: a prospective analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of an inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation program on functional outcome, supplemental oxygen use, quality of life (QOL), and rehospitalization. DESIGN: A prospective study. SETTING: Inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation unit. PATIENTS: One hundred fifty-seven patients with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) admitted to an inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation program over a 3-year period. INTERVENTION: Comprehensive interdisciplinary inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation program with an average length of stay of 21 days. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Improvements in QOL questionnaire scores, COPD knowledge questionnaire scores, 6-minute walking test (with 3 ambulation categories: bed-bound, household ambulators, community ambulators), and supplemental oxygen use. Rehospitalization 1 year after completion of the program was also assessed and compared with hospital days for the year before the program. RESULTS: On discharge from the program, 88% of individuals walked farther (p <.0001), and community ambulators doubled their walking distance, whereas bed-bound patients decreased 10-fold; supplemental oxygen use dropped 33% during the day (p <.0001) and 57% during the night (p <.0001); 82% showed improved QOL (p <.0001); 67% showed improved knowledge of COPD (p <.0001); and 67% of the sample spent less time in the hospital during the 12 months after program completion compared with the 12 months before admission (p <.001). CONCLUSIONS: An inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation program leads to improved endurance and functional ambulation, decreased supplemental oxygen use, and fewer hospitalizations 1 year after discharge for patients with COPD.

Etiology and incidence of rehospitalization after traumatic brain injury: a multicenter analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate incidence and etiology of rehospitalizations at 1, 2, and 3 years after traumatic brain injury. DESIGN: Descriptive statistics were computed in a prospective study of etiology and incidence of rehospitalization at years 1, 2, and 3 postinjury. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and chi2 were used to identify factors relating to rehospitalization; factors included length of stay, admission and discharge functional status, payer source, medical complications, injury severity, and demographics. SETTING: Four medical centers in the federally sponsored Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems. In each setting, the continuum of care includes emergency medical services, intensive and acute medical care, inpatient rehabilitation, and a spectrum of community rehabilitation services. PARTICIPANTS: Six hundred sixty-five rehabilitation patients admitted to acute care within 24 hours of traumatic brain injury between 1989 and 1996. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Annual incidence and etiology of rehospitalization. RESULTS: The annual incidence of rehospitalization ranged from 20% to 22.5%. Approximately half the rehospitalizations were for elective reasons. The most common reason for rehospitalization was for orthopedic or reconstructive surgery, followed by infectious disorders and general health maintenance. After the first year, the incidence of readmissions for seizures and psychiatric difficulties increased substantially. ANOVA and chi2 analyses were performed on data from the first year postinjury. No statistically significant associations were noted between incidence and etiology of rehospitalization and: demographics; injury severity; payer source for rehabilitation; concurrent injuries; acute care and rehabilitation length of stays; discharge Functional Assessment Measure; and discharge residence (p > .05). CONCLUSIONS: There is a relatively stable but high rate of rehospitalization for at least 3 years after injury. The costs of rehospitalization should be considered when evaluating the long-term consequences of injury.

Factors associated with balance deficits on admission to rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury: a multicenter analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate how demographics, measures of injury severity, and acute care complications relate to sitting and standing balance in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). DESIGN: Multicenter analysis of consecutive admissions to designated TBI Model Systems of Care (TBIMS). SETTING: Ten National Institute for Disability and Rehabilitation Research TBI Model System centers for coordinated acute and rehabilitation care. PARTICIPANTS: 908 adults with TBI were included in the study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Sitting and standing balance were assessed within 72 hours of admission to inpatient rehabilitation. RESULTS: Age less than 50 years had a significant association with normal sitting and standing balance (P =.001 and.05, respectively). Measures of severity of traumatic brain injury, including admission Glasgow Coma Score, length of posttraumatic amnesia (PTA), length of coma, and acute care length of stay were each significantly related to impaired sitting and standing balance ratings (P <.01). Initial abnormalities in pupillary response had a significant relationship with impairment of sitting (P =.009) but not standing balance. Incidence of respiratory failure, pneumonia, soft tissue infections, and urinary tract infections were all related to impaired sitting balance (P <.01). Presence of intracranial hemorrhages did not have a significant relationship with either sitting or standing balance. Intracranial compression had a significant relationship with standing (P =.05) but not sitting balance. A discriminant function analysis, which included neuroradiological findings, injury severity, and medical complications, could not accurately predict impaired balance ratings. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated that rehabilitation admission balance ratings have a significant relationship with age, multiple measures of severity, and acute care medical complications after TBI. Prospective studies are indicated to evaluate the role balance at rehabilitation admission plays in the functional prognosis of patients with TBI.

Pre-injury substance abuse among persons with brain injury and persons with spinal cord injury.

Alcohol and drug use at the time of injury have been strongly implicated as causal factors of spinal cord injury (SCI) and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Researchers have only begun their efforts to investigate the pre-injury incidence of substance abuse in an effort to identify persons at risk for traumatic injury. No studies have compared brain and spinal cord injury populations. This investigation was based in an urban, level one trauma center federally designated as a model system of comprehensive rehabilitative services for persons with TBI and persons with SCI. Pre-injury patterns of alcohol and illicit drug use were compared among patients with SCI and patients with TBI, matched for age, gender, race, and mechanism of injury (n= 52). In accordance with previous research, participants were primarily young, unmarried, males with at least a high school education. Eighty-one percent of patients with TBI and 96% of patients with SCI reported pre-injury alcohol use. The rate of pre-injury heavy drinking for both groups was alarmingly high. Fifty-seven percent of persons with SCI and 42% of persons with TBI were heavy drinkers. Implications for risk identification, treatment, and future research are discussed.