A model of selective masking in chromatic detection.

Narrowly tuned, selective noise masking of chromatic detection has been taken as evidence for the existence of a large number of color mechanisms (i.e., higher order color mechanisms). Here we replicate earlier observations of selective masking of tests in the (L,M) plane of cone space when the noise is placed near the corners of the detection contour. We used unipolar Gaussian blob tests with three different noise color directions, and we show that there are substantial asymmetries in the detection contours-asymmetries that would have been missed with bipolar tests such as Gabor patches. We develop a new chromatic detection model, which is based on probability summation of linear cone combinations, and incorporates a linear contrast energy versus noise power relationship that predicts how the sensitivity of these mechanisms changes with noise contrast and chromaticity. With only six unipolar color mechanisms (the same number as the cardinal model), the new model accounts for the threshold contours across the different noise conditions, including the asymmetries and the selective effects of the noises. The key for producing selective noise masking in the (L,M) plane is having more than two mechanisms with opposed L- and M-cone inputs, in which case selective masking can be produced without large numbers of color mechanisms.

Understanding CRY2 interactions for optical control of intracellular signaling.

Arabidopsis cryptochrome 2 (CRY2) can simultaneously undergo light-dependent CRY2-CRY2 homo-oligomerization and CRY2-CIB1 hetero-dimerization, both of which have been widely used to optically control intracellular processes. Applications using CRY2-CIB1 interaction desire minimal CRY2 homo-oligomerization to avoid unintended complications, while those utilizing CRY2-CRY2 interaction prefer robust homo-oligomerization. However, selecting the type of CRY2 interaction has not been possible as the molecular mechanisms underlying CRY2 interactions are unknown. Here we report CRY2-CIB1 and CRY2-CRY2 interactions are governed by well-separated protein interfaces at the two termini of CRY2. N-terminal charges are critical for CRY2-CIB1 interaction. Moreover, two C-terminal charges impact CRY2 homo-oligomerization, with positive charges facilitating oligomerization and negative charges inhibiting it. By engineering C-terminal charges, we develop CRY2high and CRY2low with elevated or suppressed oligomerization respectively, which we use to tune the levels of Raf/MEK/ERK signaling. These results contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying light-induced CRY2 interactions and enhance the controllability of CRY2-based optogenetic systems.Cryptochrome 2 (CRY2) can form light-regulated CRY2-CRY2 homo-oligomers or CRY2-CIB1 hetero-dimers, but modulating these interactions is difficult owing to the lack of interaction mechanism. Here the authors identify the interactions facilitating homo-oligomers and introduce mutations to create low and high oligomerization versions.