Empirical Correction for Differences in Chemical Exchange Rates in Hydrogen Exchange-Mass Spectrometry Measurements.

A barrier to the use of hydrogen exchange-mass spectrometry (HX-MS) in many contexts, especially analytical characterization of various protein therapeutic candidates, is that differences in temperature, pH, ionic strength, buffering agent, or other additives can alter chemical exchange rates, making HX data gathered under differing solution conditions difficult to compare. Here, we present data demonstrating that HX chemical exchange rates can be substantially altered not only by the well-established variables of temperature and pH but also by additives including arginine, guanidine, methionine, and thiocyanate. To compensate for these additive effects, we have developed an empirical method to correct the hydrogen-exchange data for these differences. First, differences in chemical exchange rates are measured by use of an unstructured reporter peptide, YPI. An empirical chemical exchange correction factor, determined by use of the HX data from the reporter peptide, is then applied to the HX measurements obtained from a protein of interest under different solution conditions. We demonstrate that the correction is experimentally sound through simulation and in a proof-of-concept experiment using unstructured peptides under slow-exchange conditions (pD 4.5 at ambient temperature). To illustrate its utility, we applied the correction to HX-MS excipient screening data collected for a pharmaceutically relevant IgG4 mAb being characterized to determine the effects of different formulations on backbone dynamics.

claMP Tag: a versatile inline metal-binding platform based on the metal abstraction peptide.

Molecularly targeted research and diagnostic tools are essential to advancing understanding and detection of many diseases. Metals often impart the desired functionality to these tools, and conjugation of high-affinity chelators to proteins is carried out to enable targeted delivery of the metal. This approach has been much more effective with large lanthanide series metals than smaller transition metals. Because chemical conjugation requires additional processing and purification steps and yields a heterogeneous mixture of products, inline incorporation of a peptide tag capable of metal binding is a highly preferable alternative. Development of a transition metal binding tag would provide opportunity to greatly expand metal-based analyses. The metal abstraction peptide (MAP) sequence was genetically engineered into recombinant protein to generate the claMP Tag. The effects of this tag on recombinant epidermal growth factor (EGF) protein expression, disulfide bond formation, tertiary structural integrity, and transition metal incorporation using nickel were examined to confirm the viability of utilizing the MAP sequence to generate linker-less metal conjugates.

Understanding the Effects of Site-Specific Light Chain Conjugation on Antibody Structure Using Hydrogen Exchange-Mass Spectrometry (HX-MS).

Antibody drug conjugates (ADCs) represent one of the fastest growing classes of cancer therapeutics. Drug incorporation through site-specific conjugation in ADCs leads to uniform drug load and distribution. These site-specific modifications may have an impact on ADC quality attributes including protein higher order structure (HOS), which might impact safety and efficacy. In this study, we conducted a side-by-side comparison between the conjugated and unconjugated mAb. In the ADC, the linker-pyrrolobenzodiazepine was site specifically conjugated to an engineered unpaired C215 residue within the Fab domain of the light chain. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF) indicated a decrease in thermal stability for the CH2 transition of the ADC. Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) analysis showed that conjugation of the mAb resulted in earlier aggregation onset and increased aggregation propensity after 4 weeks at 40 °C. Differential hydrogen-exchange mass spectrometry (HX-MS) indicated that upon conjugation, light chain residues 150-155 and 197-204, close to the conjugation site, showed significantly faster HX kinetics, suggesting an increase in backbone flexibility within this region, while heavy chain residues 32-44 exhibited significantly slower kinetics, suggesting distal stabilization of the mAb backbone.

Predictive Nature of High-Throughput Assays in ADC Formulation Screening.

Utilization of high-throughput biophysical screening techniques during early screening studies is warranted due to the limited amount of material and large number of samples. But the predictability of the data to longer-term storage stability is critical as the high-throughput methods assist in defining the design space for the longer-term studies. In this study, the biophysical properties of two ADCs in 16 formulation conditions were evaluated using high-throughput techniques. Conformational stability and colloidal stability were evaluated by determining Tm values, kD, B22, and Tagg. In addition, the samples were placed on stability and the extent of aggregate formation over the 8-week interval was determined. The rank order of the 16 different formulations in the high-throughput assays was compared to the rank order observed during the stability studies to assess the predictive capabilities of the screening methods. It was demonstrated that similar rank orders can be expected between high-throughput physical stability indicating assays such as Tagg and B22 and traditional aggregation by SEC data, whereas conformational stability read-outs (Tm) are less predictive. In addition, the high-throughput assays appropriately identified the poor performing formulation conditions, which is ultimately what is desired of screening assays.

An Intercompany Perspective on Practical Experiences of Predicting, Optimizing and Analyzing High Concentration Biologic Therapeutic Formulations.

Developing high-dose biologic drugs for subcutaneous injection often requires high-concentration formulations and optimizing viscosity, solubility, and stability while overcoming analytical, manufacturing, and administration challenges. To understand industry approaches for developing high-concentration formulations, the Formulation Workstream of the BioPhorum Development Group, an industry-wide consortium, conducted an inter-company collaborative exercise which included several surveys. This collaboration provided an industry perspective, experience, and insight into the practicalities for developing high-concentration biologics. To understand solubility and viscosity, companies desire predictive tools, but experience indicates that these are not reliable and experimental strategies are best. Similarly, most companies prefer accelerated and stress stability studies to in-silico or biophysical-based prediction methods to assess aggregation. In addition, optimization of primary container-closure and devices are pursued to mitigate challenges associated with high viscosity of the formulation. Formulation strategies including excipient selection and application of studies at low concentration to high-concentration formulations are reported. Finally, analytical approaches to high concentration formulations are presented. The survey suggests that although prediction of viscosity, solubility, and long-term stability is desirable, the outcome can be inconsistent and molecule dependent. Significant experimental studies are required to confirm robust product definition as modeling at low protein concentrations will not necessarily extrapolate to high concentration formulations.

Effect of Linker-Drug Properties and Conjugation Site on the Physical Stability of ADCs.

The physical stability of antibody drug conjugates is dictated by the properties of the antibody, linker-drug, and conjugation site. Two linker-drugs were chosen that are different in terms of hydrophobicity and polar surface area to evaluate the effect of linker-drug properties on antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) behavior. Site-specific and non-site-specific conjugation was used to investigate the role of conjugation site in conformational and colloidal stability. Finally, 2 antibodies were selected to determine if the observed results were antibody-specific. The conformational stability is affected, with the highest degree of destabilization observed when conjugation results in the removal of interchain disulfide bonds. Although conformational destabilization occurred in the domain in which conjugation occurred and domains distinct from the conjugation site, no correlation could be drawn between linker-drug properties and conformational stability. Evaluation of aggregation by size exclusion HPLC confirmed a relationship between linker-drug hydrophobicity and aggregation propensity under thermal stress in all ADCs tested. The extent of aggregation was far greater in the conjugates generated with a more hydrophobic antibody, illustrating that the properties of both the antibody and linker-drug contribute to aggregation. These studies emphasize that the distinct properties of the molecule as a whole warrant a case-by-case evaluation of each ADC.

Effects of localized interactions and surface properties on stability of protein-based therapeutics.

OBJECTIVES: Protein-based therapeutics garner significant attention because of exquisite specificity and limited side effects and are now being used to accomplish targeted delivery of small-molecule drugs. This review identifies and highlights individual chemical attributes and categorizes how site-specific changes affect protein stability based on published high-resolution molecular analyses. KEY FINDINGS: Because it is challenging to determine the mechanisms by which the stability of large, complex molecules is altered and data are sparse, smaller, therapeutic proteins (insulin, erythropoietin, interferons) are examined alongside antibody data. Integrating this large pool of information with the limited available studies on antibodies reveals common mechanisms by which specific alterations affect protein structure and stability. SUMMARY: Physical and chemical stability of therapeutic proteins and antibody drug conjugates (ADCs) is of critical importance because insufficient stability prevents molecules from making it to market. Individual moieties on/near the surface of proteins have substantial influence on structure and stability. Seemingly small, superficial modification may have far-reaching consequences on structure, conformational dynamics, and solubility of the protein, and hence physical stability of the molecule. Chemical modifications, whether spontaneous (e.g. oxidation, deamidation) or intentional, as with ADCs, may adversely impact stability by disrupting local surface properties or higher order protein structure.

Evaluation of Hydrogen Exchange Mass Spectrometry as a Stability-Indicating Method for Formulation Excipient Screening for an IgG4 Monoclonal Antibody.

Antibodies are molecules that exhibit diverse conformational changes on different timescales, and there is ongoing interest to better understand the relationship between antibody conformational dynamics and storage stability. Physical stability data for an IgG4 monoclonal antibody (mAb-D) were gathered through traditional forced degradation (temperature and stirring stresses) and accelerated stability studies, in the presence of different additives and solution conditions, as measured by differential scanning calorimetry, size exclusion chromatography, and microflow imaging. The results were correlated with hydrogen exchange mass spectrometry (HX-MS) data gathered for mAb-D in the same formulations. Certain parameters of the HX-MS data, including hydrogen exchange in specific peptide segments in the CH2 domain, were found to correlate with stabilization and destabilization of additives on mAb-D during thermal stress. No such correlations between mAb physical stability and HX-MS readouts were observed under agitation stress. These results demonstrate that HX-MS can be set up as a streamlined methodology (using minimal material and focusing on key peptide segments at key time points) to screen excipients for their ability to physically stabilize mAbs. However, useful correlations between HX-MS and either accelerated or real-time stability studies will be dependent on a particular mAb's degradation pathway(s) and the type of stresses used.

Stability analysis of an inline peptide-based conjugate for metal delivery: nickel(II)-claMP Tag epidermal growth factor as a model system.

Metals are a key component of many diagnostic imaging and biotechnology applications, and the majority of cancer patients receive a platinum-based drug as part of their treatment. Significant effort has been devoted to developing tight binding synthetic chelators to enable effective targeted delivery of metal-based conjugates, with most successes involving lanthanides rather than transition metals for diagnostic imaging. Chemical conjugation modifies the protein's properties and generates a heterogeneous mixture of products. Chelator attachment is typically carried out by converting the amino group on lysines to an amide, which can impact the stability and solubility of the targeting protein and these properties vary among the set of individual conjugate species. Site-specific attachment is sought to reduce complexity and control stability. Here, the metal abstraction peptide technology was applied to create the claMP Tag, an inline platform for generating site-specific conjugates involving transition metals. The claMP Tag was genetically encoded into epidermal growth factor (EGF) and loaded with nickel(II) as a model system to demonstrate that the tag within the homogeneous inline conjugate presents sufficient solution stability to enable biotechnology applications. The structure and disulfide network of the protein and chemical stability of the claMP Tag and EGF components were characterized.