miR-182 is largely dispensable for adaptive immunity: lack of correlation between expression and function.

MicroRNA (miR)-mediated regulation of protein abundance is a pervasive mechanism of directing cellular processes. The well-studied and abundant miR-182 has previously been implicated in many aspects of T cell function, DNA repair, and cancer. In this study, we show that miR-182 is the most highly induced miR in B cells undergoing class-switch recombination. To elucidate the requirement of miR-182 in lymphocyte function, we extensively characterized mice with a targeted deletion of Mir182. We show that despite its dramatic induction, loss of miR-182 has minimal impact on B cell development, the ability of B cells to undergo class-switch recombination ex vivo and to undergo Ag-driven affinity maturation in vivo. Furthermore, in striking contrast to knockdown studies that demonstrated the requirement of miR-182 in T cell function, miR-182-deficient mice display no defect in T cell development and activation. Finally, we show that T cell-dependent immune response to experimental Listeria monocytogenes infection is intact in miR-182-deficient mice. We conclude that, contrary to previous studies, miR-182 does not play a significant role in all measured aspects of mouse adaptive immunity. This striking absence of a phenotype highlights the lack of correlation between expression pattern and functional requirement, underscores the limitations of using knockdown approaches to assess miR requirements, and suggests that miR networks may compensate for the chronic loss of specific miRs.

Effects of arachidonic acid intake on inflammatory reactions in dextran sodium sulphate-induced colitis in rats.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the administration of oral arachidonic acid (AA) in rats with or without dextran sulphate sodium (DSS)-induced inflammatory bowel disease. Male Wistar rats were administered AA at 0, 5, 35 or 240 mg/kg daily by gavage for 8 weeks. Inflammatory bowel disease was induced by replacing drinking water with 3 % DSS solution during the last 7 d of the AA dosing period. These animals passed loose stools, diarrhoea and red-stained faeces. Cyclo-oxygenase-2 concentration and myeloperoxidase activity in the colonic tissue were significantly increased in the animals given AA at 240 mg/kg compared with the animals given AA at 0 mg/kg. Thromboxane B2 concentration in the medium of cultured colonic mucosae isolated from these groups was found to be dose-dependently increased by AA, and the increase was significant at 35 and 240 mg/kg. Leukotriene B4 concentration was also significantly increased and saturated at 5 mg/kg. In addition, AA at 240 mg/kg promoted DSS-induced colonic mucosal oedema with macrophage infiltration. In contrast, administration of AA for 8 weeks, even at 240 mg/kg, showed no effects on the normal rats. These results suggest that in rats with bowel disease AA metabolism is affected by oral AA, even at 5 mg/kg per d, and that excessive AA may aggravate inflammation, whereas AA shows no effects in rats without inflammatory bowel disease.

Lipase-catalyzed interesterification of Sunite sheep tail fat and flaxseed oil provides a fat having a unique fatty acid content and favorable physicochemical and nutritional properties.

The aim of this study is to combine flaxseed oil (FO), rich in α-linolenic acid (ALA), with Sunite sheep tail fat (STF) through a lipase-catalyzed transesterification reaction, in order to produce an edible oil with a fatty acid ratio suitable for human needs. Initially, the optimal conditions for esterification were determined using the Box-Behnken design, with the measurement criterion being the content of ALA at the sn-2 position. The results indicated that the highest content of sn-2 ALA was obtained under the conditions of using 6.8 wt% Lipozyme®RMIM as the catalyst, a reaction temperature of 57°C, a reaction time of 3.3 h, and a substrate mass ratio of 5.6:4.4 for STF and FO. This led to the rapid breaking and recombining of molecular bonds, resulting in the interesterified fat (IF) with the highest content of ALA at the sn-2 position. Comparing STF and FO, IF exhibited excellent fatty acid composition and content. Furthermore, IF had a lower melting point and crystallization temperature compared to STF, and its solid fat content decreased with increasing temperature, completely melting at temperatures above 30°C. Thus, IF is a synthesized fat with excellent properties from both animal and vegetable sources.

Pex11α deficiency impairs peroxisome elongation and division and contributes to nonalcoholic fatty liver in mice.

Hepatic triglyceride (TG) accumulation is considered to be a prerequisite for developing nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL). Peroxisomes have many important functions in lipid metabolism, including fatty acid ß-oxidization. However, the pathogenic link between NAFL and peroxisome biogenesis remains unclear. To examine the molecular and physiological functions of the Pex11α gene, we disrupted this gene in mice. Body weights and hepatic TG concentrations in Pex11α(-/-) mice were significantly higher than those in wild-type (WT) mice fed a normal or a high-fat diet. Hepatic TG concentrations in fasted Pex11α(-/-) mice were significantly higher than those in fasted WT mice. Plasma TG levels increased at lower rates in Pex11α(-/-) mice than in WT mice after treatment with the lipoprotein lipase inhibitor tyloxapol. The number of peroxisomes was lower in the livers of Pex11α(-/-) mice than in those of WT mice. Ultrastructural analysis showed that small and regular spherically shaped peroxisomes were more prevalent in Pex11α(-/-) mice fed normal chow supplemented without or with fenofibrate. We observed a significantly higher ratio of empty peroxisomes containing only PMP70, a peroxisome membrane protein, but not catalase, a peroxisome matrix protein, in Pex11α(-/-) mice. The mRNA expression levels of peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation-related genes (ATP-binding cassette, subfamily D, member 2, and acyl-CoA thioesterase 3) were significantly higher in WT mice than those in Pex11α(-/-) mice under fed conditions. Our results demonstrate that Pex11α deficiency impairs peroxisome elongation and abundance and peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation, which contributes to increased lipid accumulation in the liver.

MicroRNA 210 as a biomarker for congestive heart failure.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous small RNAs that are 18-23 nucleotides long. Recently, plasma miRNAs were reported to be sensitive and specific biomarkers of various pathological conditions. In the present study, we focused on miR-210, which is known to be induced by hypoxia and might therefore be an excellent biomarker for congestive heart failure. Plasma miR-210 levels and expression levels in mononuclear cells and skeletal muscles were elevated in Dahl salt-sensitive rats with heart failure. We also assessed miR-210 expression in patients with heart failure. The miR-210 expression levels in the mononuclear cells of patients with NYHA III and IV heart failure according to the New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional classification system were significantly higher than those with NYHA II heart failure and controls. Although no significant correlation was observed between plasma brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and plasma miR-210 levels in patients with NYHA II heart failure, patients with an improved BNP profile at the subsequent hospital visit were classified in a subgroup of patients with low plasma miR-210 levels. Plasma miR-210 levels may reflect a mismatch between the pump function of the heart and oxygen demand in the peripheral tissues, and be a new biomarker for chronic heart failure in addition to plasma BNP concentrations.

P2X7 deficiency attenuates hypertension and renal injury in deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt hypertension.

The P2X(7) receptor is a ligand-gated ion channel, and genetic variations in the P2X(7) gene significantly affect blood pressure. P2X(7) receptor expression is associated with renal injury and inflammatory diseases. Uninephrectomized wild-type (WT) and P2X(7)-deficient (P2X(7) KO) mice were subcutaneously implanted with deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA) pellets and fed an 8% salt diet for 18 days. Their blood pressure was assessed by a telemetry system. The mice were placed in metabolic cages, and urine was collected for 24 h to assess renal function. After 18 days of DOCA-salt treatment, P2X(7) mRNA and protein expression increased in WT mice. Blood pressure in P2X(7) KO mice was less than that of WT mice (mean systolic blood pressure 133 ± 3 vs. 150 ± 2 mmHg). On day 18, urinary albumin excretion was lower in P2X(7) KO mice than in WT mice (0.11 ± 0.07 vs. 0.28 ± 0.07 mg/day). Creatinine clearance was higher in P2X(7) KO mice than in WT mice (551.53 ± 65.23 vs. 390.85 ± 32.81 µl·min(-1)·g renal weight(-1)). Moreover, renal interstitial fibrosis and infiltration of immune cells (macrophages, T cells, B cells, and leukocytes) were markedly attenuated in P2X(7) KO mice compared with WT mice. The levels of IL-1ß, released by macrophages, in P2X(7) KO mice had decreased dramatically compared with that in WT mice. These results strongly suggest that the P2X(7) receptor plays a key role in the development of hypertension and renal disease via increased inflammation, indicating its potential as a novel therapeutic target.

Rapeseed (canola) oil aggravates metabolic syndrome-like conditions in male but not in female stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP).

This study was conducted to investigate whether or not there are sex differences in canola oil (CAN)-induced adverse events in the rat and to understand the involvement and the role of testosterone in those events, including life-shortening. Stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP) of both sexes were fed a diet containing 10 wt/wt% soybean oil (SOY, control) or CAN as the sole dietary fat. The survival of the males fed the CAN diet was significantly shorter than that of those fed the SOY diet. In contrast, the survival of the females was not affected by CAN. The males fed the CAN diet showed elevated blood pressure, thrombopenia and insulin-tolerance, which are major symptoms of metabolic syndrome, whereas such changes by the CAN diet were not found in the females. Plasma testosterone was significantly lower in animals of both sexes fed the CAN diet than in those fed the SOY diet, but interestingly, the lowered testosterone was accompanied by a marked increase in plasma aldosterone only in the males. These results demonstrate significant sex differences in CAN-toxicity and suggest that those sex differences may be attributable to the increased aldosterone level, which triggers aggravation of the genetic diseases specific to SHRSP, that is, metabolic syndrome-like conditions, but only in the males. The present results also suggest that testosterone may negatively regulate aldosterone production in the physiology of the males, and the inhibition of that negative regulation caused by the CAN diet is one of the possible causes of the adverse events.

Serum Mac-2 Binding Protein Levels Associate with Metabolic Parameters and Predict Liver Fibrosis Progression in Subjects with Fatty Liver Disease: A 7-Year Longitudinal Study.

Background: Mac-2 binding protein (M2BP) is a highly glycosylated secreted glycoprotein that is involved in immune defense and regulation. Our cross-sectional studies indicated that serum M2BP was a useful liver fibrosis biomarker for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). In this study, we conducted a 7-year longitudinal study to investigate the significance of serum M2BP levels (baseline and at 7-year follow-up) and their relationships with other metabolic parameters of fatty liver disease. Methods: We enrolled 715 study subjects (521 male and 194 female) during health examinations. Study subjects received blood sampling tests and abdominal ultrasound tests at baseline and follow-up. Results: Univariate analyses demonstrated that serum M2BP levels were significantly correlated with various parameters related to metabolic risk (body mass index (BMI), systolic blood pressure, triglyceride, high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol) and metabolic syndrome diseases (obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, fatty liver (FL)). Multiple logistic regression analyses demonstrated that BMI and FL were independent determinants for serum M2BP levels. Baseline serum M2BP levels were significant independent determinants for changes in platelet count, Fibrosis-4 (FIB4) index, and NAFLD fibrosis score. Higher serum M2BP levels (>1.80 µg/mL) strongly correlated with changes in the FIB4-index. Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that changes in serum M2BP levels reflect changes in specific metabolic disease-related parameters, and baseline serum M2BP levels could predict changes in liver fibrosis.

Different effects of 26-week dietary intake of rapeseed oil and soybean oil on plasma lipid levels, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity and cyclooxygenase-2 expression in spontaneously hypertensive rats.

We intended to determine whether or not dietary canola oil (CO) elevates plasma lipids and oxidative stress, since both of these are, possibly, related to the CO-induced life shortening through exacerbation of hypertension-associated vascular lesions found in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP). Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) were used in this study to avoid a potential bias in the results due to the irregular death by stroke seen in SHRSP. SHR were fed for 26 weeks on a chow containing either, 10 wt/wt% of CO or soybean oil (SO), i.e., the control. Elevated plasma lipids and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) activation in the liver and erythrocyte were found in SHR fed CO compared to that fed SO, while anti-oxidative enzymes other than G6PD were not activated. The CO diet brought about significant vascular lesions in the kidney, in which abundant cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) positive foci were immunochemically located in the juxtaglomerular apparatus. These results suggest that dietary CO induces a hyperlipidemic condition, in which G6PD may serve as an NADPH provider, and aggravates genetic diseases in SHR (also, probably, in SHRSP). The increased COX-2 expression indicates a role of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation in the increased vascular lesions, whereas the effects of oxidative stress remain unclear.

Changes in the presence of urine Helicobacter pylori antibody in Japanese children in three different age groups.

BACKGROUND: The rates of acquisition and spontaneous eradication of Helicobacter pylori infection in children has yet to be established. To determine these rates in children living in an urban region of Japan, the levels of urine H. pylori antibodies in children of three different age groups were measured. METHODS: A urine-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect H. pylori antibodies twice within a 12 month interval over 2 years in 452 healthy children living in Tokyo. The subjects were divided into three groups: ages 4, 7, and 10 years. RESULTS: The prevalence of H. pylori infection was not different among the groups, being between 4.0% and 6.7%. The rate of turn to positivity for H. pylori infection was 1.5% per year and the rate of turn to negativity was 1.1%, but in the 10 year age group the rates were markedly lower than in the younger children. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of H. pylori infection in Tokyo was 4.0-6.7% and was not different among 4, 7, and 10 year age groups.

A ninety-day feeding, subchronic toxicity study of oligo-N-acetylglucosamine in Fischer 344 rats.

Oligo-N-acetylglucosamine (OAG) is a hydrolyzed derivative of chitin that has been used as a sweetener in foods. Since, no information has been published about the safety of OAG, a 90-day feeding study was conducted, using F344 Fischer rats of both sexes, to characterize and evaluate the toxicity of OAG, and the results of the study are presented here. Dietary levels of 0% (control), 0.2%, 1%, and 5% OAG did not change any measurements in ophthalmological examinations, clinical signs, body weights, food consumption, hematology, blood biochemistry, urinalysis, necropsies, organ weights or histological examinations. The sole finding, which could not be clarified to be attributed to OAG or not, was a decrease in the relative weight of the submaxillary gland to body weight in the male animals given the 5% OAG diet. Although no lesions were found in either gross or histological examination in the present study, further studies using OAG levels higher than 5% might provide a clue to the mechanisms underlying the decreased organ weight observed here. Taken together, under the conditions in the present study, the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) for males was found to be 1% (0.641 g/kg/day); and that for females, 5% (3.64 /kg/day) or more, based on the lack of toxicological effects.

A 90-day ad libitum administration toxicity study of oligoglucosamine in F344 rats.

A 90-day ad libitum administration toxicity study of oligoglucosamine (OG) was carried out using F344 rats of both sexes. The animals were divided into four groups of 20 animals each, 10 of each sex, and fed a diet containing 0, 0.04, 0.2 or 1.0 (w/w)% OG. During the administration period, no animals of either sex died or exhibited abnormal signs in the 0.04% OG and 0.2% OG groups. In the 1% OG group, in both sexes, erythema and swelling of the snout and forelimbs and loss of fur in the forelimbs were observed. On macroscopic observation, emaciation, swelling of the snout, auricles and forelimbs and alopecia of the forelimbs were also observed in 2-3 males of the 1% OG group. It was suggested that these topical abnormalities might be due to dermal responses to OG adhering to the skin and fur, which are easily soiled with saliva during grooming. In the animals of the 1% OG group, food consumption decreased, resulting in body weight gain being suppressed. This was found concomitantly with the abnormal findings mentioned above. Thus, feeding difficulties due to the topical lesions on the snout and forelimbs were thought to affect body weight. In hematology, platelet count, lymphocyte count and differential neutrophil count increased in males of the 1% OG group. These changes might be related to the dermal inflammation. Abnormalities in urinalysis and blood chemistry, as well as a small thymus, small spleen, dark spots or areas on the glandular stomach mucosa, pale Harderian glands and small testes in histopathology, were also observed in males in the 1% OG group. Whether or not all these changes were related only to the malnutrition remains to be elucidated. From these results, OG gave rise to no adverse effects in rats up to the dose level of 0.2 (w/w)%. Thus, the no observed adverse effect level was determined to be 0.2 (w/w)% for rats of either sex (124.0mg/kg/day in males, 142.0mg/kg/day in females).

Exploration for unknown substances in rapeseed oil that shorten survival time of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Effects of super critical gas extraction fractions.

To identify the causative substances for the shortening of survival time by rapeseed (Canola) oil in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP), SHRSP were fed on a standard chow supplemented with 10 w/w% soybean oil (control), rapeseed oil, one of the fractions of rapeseed oil obtained by super critical gas extraction (SCE) under a pressure of 180-bar or 350-bar, at 40 degrees C, or the residue from the extraction (with 0.5% NaCl in drinking water). In another series of experiment, SHRSP were fed for 8 weeks on the above-mentioned diets without salt loading and autopsied. Fatty acid compositions in these diets were similar, except in the soybean oil diet, and phytosterol contents were: (diet containing) 180-bar fraction>residue>rapeseed oil>350-bar fraction>soybean oil. Survival times in the rapeseed oil, 350-bar fraction and residue groups were shorter than, whereas that in the 180-bar fraction was similar to in the soybean oil group. In the 8-week feeding experiment, chronic nephropathy was found frequently in the groups other than the soybean oil group. The heart weights were higher in the rapeseed oil and residue groups. Cerebral necrosis was found in the residue group. Taken together, the followings are concluded, (1) Neither the fatty acid composition, nor the amount of phytosterols in the diets appeared to be decisive in the shortening of life. (2) SCE appeared to produce a safe (180-bar) fraction, though it failed to separate clearly the causative substances into specific fractions. (3) The factors that facilitate the genetic disease of SHRSP appear to exist in rapeseed oil. However, they might not be identical to those responsible for the life-shortening, since there were no findings common across the rapeseed oil, 350-bar and residue groups, which showed similar life-shortening.

Eicosanoids Derived From Arachidonic Acid and Their Family Prostaglandins and Cyclooxygenase in Psychiatric Disorders.

Arachidonic acid (AA)-derived lipid mediators are called eicosanoids. Eicosanoids have emerged as key regulators of a wide variety of physiological responses and pathological processes, and control important cellular processes. AA can be converted into biologically active compounds by metabolism by cyclooxygenases (COX). Beneficial effect of COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib add-on therapy has been reported in early stage of schizophrenia. Moreover, add-on treatment of celecoxib attenuated refractory depression and bipolar depression. Further, the COX/prostaglandin E pathway play an important role in synaptic plasticity and may be included in pathophysiology in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In this regard, plasma transferrin, which is an iron mediator related to eicosanoid signaling, may be related to social impairment of ASD. COX-2 is typically induced by inflammatory stimuli in the majority of tissues, and the only isoform responsible for propagating the inflammatory response. Thus, COX-2 inhibitors considered as the best target for Alzheimer's disease.

Remnant-like particles from subjects who died of coronary artery disease suppress NO synthase activity and attenuate endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation.

BACKGROUND: Plasma levels of remnant-like particles (RLP) is one of the predictive markers for coronary artery disease (CAD), and the inhibition by RLP of endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation has been reported. We attempted to clarify whether or not RLP, which inhibits endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, affects nitric oxide (NO) production and NO synthase (eNOS) levels in cultured endothelial cells. METHODS: RLP were obtained from postmortem blood of subjects who died of CAD. Modification by RLP of acetylcholine-induced relaxation of rabbit aorta, and changes in NO production and (eNOS) in cultured bovine endothelial cells were examined. RESULTS: RLP at 750 and 1500 microg triglyceride/ml inhibited vasorelaxation, and at 5-160 microg triglyceride/ml, concentration-dependently inhibited NO production. However, (eNOS) did not decrease after incubation with RLP. CONCLUSION: Postmortem RLP from subjects who died of CAD do not change the amount of (eNOS), but rather, inhibits its activity and attenuates endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation.

Rapeseed oil ingestion and exacerbation of hypertension-related conditions in stroke prone spontaneously hypertensive rats.

Two groups of 20 stroke prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP) at 5 weeks old were fed a diet containing 10 w/w% rapeseed (canola) oil or soybean oil as the only dietary fat, and given drinking water containing 1% NaCl. Life span of the canola oil group (62+/-2 days) was shorter than that of the soybean oil group (68+/-3 days). Stroke-related symptoms were observed in every animal, but the onset of those in the canola oil group, at 47+/-1 days after starting the administration was earlier than that in the soybean oil group, 52+/-2 days. Incidence of cerebral hemorrhage was similar in these groups, and no differences were found between lesions of organs in the groups. In another experiment, two groups of ten SHRSP at 5 weeks of age were fed the defatted diet and given canola oil or soybean oil by gavage at 10 w/w% of consumed food for 4 weeks without NaCl loading. After the 4-week administration, mean systolic blood pressure in the canola oil group and the soybean oil group were 233+/-2 and 223+/-0.3 mmHg, respectively. Phytosterol levels in both plasma and erythrocyte membranes reflected those contained in the oils ingested. Na(+), K(+)-ATPase activities in the brain, heart and kidney were enhanced in the canola oil group. These results indicate that promotion of hypertension-related deterioration in organs is likely to have relevance to the short life span in the canola oil group. Enhanced Na(+), K(+)-ATPase activity by phytosterols in the oil ingested may play a role in these changes.

An inotropic action caused by muscarinic receptor subtype 3 in canine cardiac purkinje fibers.

Objective. The objective of this study was to investigate the inotropic mechanisms and the related muscarinic receptor subtype of acetylcholine (ACh) in canine cardiac Purkinje fibers. Materials and Methods. Isolated Purkinje fiber bundles were used for the measurement of contraction. The receptor subtype was determined using PCR and real-time PCR methods. Results. ACh evoked a biphasic response with a transient negative inotropic effect followed by a positive inotropic effect in a concentration-dependent manner. The biphasic inotropic actions of ACh were inhibited by the pretreatment with atropine. Caffeine inhibited the positive inotropic effect of ACh. ACh increased inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate content in the Purkinje fibers, which was abolished by atropine. Muscarinic subtypes 2 (M2) and 3 (M3) mRNAs were detected in the canine Purkinje fibers albeit the amount of M3 mRNA was smaller than M2 mRNA. M1 mRNA was not detected. Conclusion. These results suggest that the positive inotropic action of ACh may be mediated by the activation of IP3 receptors through the stimulation of M3 receptors in the canine cardiac Purkinje fibers.

Classification of various muscular tissues using miRNA profiling.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous small RNAs of 18-23 nucleotides that regulate gene expression. Recently, plasma miRNAs have been investigated as biomarkers for various diseases. In the present study, we explored whether miRNA expression profiling of various muscle cells may be useful for the diagnosis of various diseases involving muscle necrosis. miRNA expression profiling was assessed by miRNA array and real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction by using a reverse primer of a stem loop structure. Profiling of various muscle cells of mouse, including cardiac muscles, skeletal muscles, and vascular and visceral smooth muscles, indicated that profiling of miR-1, miR-133a, miR-133b, miR-145, miR-206, miR-208a, miR-208b, and miR499 were adequate to discriminate muscle cells. miR-145 was remarkably highly expressed in smooth muscles. miR-208a and miR-499 were highly expressed in cardiomyocytes. miR-133a was highly expressed in fast-twitch skeletal muscles. miR-206 and miR-208b were expressed in the slow-twitch skeletal muscles, and they can likely discriminate fast- and slow-twitch types of skeletal muscle cells. We observed that brown fat adipose cells had an miRNA expression profile very similar to those of skeletal muscle cells in the mouse. Plasma concentrations of miR-133a and miR-145 were extremely useful in diagnosing skeletal muscle necrosis in a mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy and colon smooth muscle necrosis in a rat ischemic colitis model, respectively. In the present study, we investigated the miRNA expression profiles of various muscular tissues. Our results suggest that expression profiling would be useful for the diagnosis of various diseases such as muscular necrosis.