Subarachnoid hemorrhage model in the rat: modification of the endovascular filament model.

The present study describes modifications to the endovascular filament model of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) in rats. Specifically, we sought to improve the percentage yield of SAH, reduce mortality rates and better simulate human cerebral aneurysmal rupture. Instead of using a 4-0 prolene suture to induce SAH in the existing endovascular filament model, a hollow and flexible polyetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tube was maneuvered into the proximal anterior cerebral artery (ACA) to ensure that advancement occurred without producing trauma to the vessels. SAH was induced by advancing a tungsten wire through this tube, perforating the ACA at the desired location. These modifications produced significant improvements over the endovascular filament model. Mortality rate declined from 46 to 19%, and SAH was produced more frequently. With the prolene suture, only 48% of our attempts produced a SAH, and unsuccessful attempts typically resulted in an acute subdural hematoma (ASDH). In contrast, the wire/tubing technique was 90% successful at inducing SAH, and led to a significant reduction of ASDH incidence from 44 to 6%. Additionally, the modified technique produced vasospasm in basilar and middle cerebral arteries post-SAH as well as pseudoaneurysms in the proximal ACA which indicated the location of vessel perforation.

Effects of binge alcohol exposure in the second trimester on intracerebral arteriolar function in third trimester fetal sheep.

Fetal alcohol syndrome is a leading cause of mental retardation, but mechanisms of alcohol-associated brain damage remain elusive. Chronic alcohol exposure attenuates fetal and neonatal hypoxic cerebral vasodilation in sheep. We therefore hypothesized that alcohol could alter development of cerebrovascular responses to adenosine, a putative mediator of hypoxic cerebral vasodilation. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of earlier fetal alcohol exposure on later reactivity to adenosine in fetal sheep cerebral arterioles. Penetrating intracerebral arterioles were harvested from the brains of third trimester fetal sheep previously exposed in the second trimester to maternal alcohol "binges" (1.5 g/kg IV over 90 min, 5 days/week for 4 weeks) or same-volume saline infusions. Arterioles were cannulated with a micropipette system and luminally pressurized. Fetal alcohol exposure did not affect spontaneous myogenic tone, but enhanced the dilator response of penetrating arterioles to extraluminal acidosis (pH 6.8). Alcohol exposure also resulted in an increase in maximal vessel response to CGS-21680, an adenosine A2A receptor agonist, but did not alter the concentration-dependent response curves to adenosine. Our results suggest that earlier alcohol exposure does not impair the subsequent responsiveness of fetal cerebral arterioles to vasodilator agents. Thus, alteration in cerebral vascular response to hypoxia in fetal sheep may not be attributed to changes in vascular reactivity to adenosine.

Correlation of intrinsic optical signal, cerebral blood flow, and evoked potentials during activation of rat somatosensory cortex.

OBJECT: This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that cerebral blood flow (CBF) and the intrinsic optical signal could be dissociated by altering adenosine receptor activity and to uncover the origin of the optic signal using a cranial window in the anesthetized rat. METHODS: In anesthetized, ventilated, and temperature-controlled rats with closed cranial windows, the authors evaluated simultaneously the alterations in pial arteriolar diameter, intrinsic optical signals (690 nm), and somatosensory evoked potentials during cortical activation evoked by contralateral sciatic nerve stimulation (SNS). To dissociate the vascular and intrinsic signal, they topically applied the adenosine receptors antagonists theophylline (5 microM), which affects A1 and A2A receptors, and 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (CPX, 1 microM), which blocks the A(1) receptor. The former interacts primarily with the vasculature whereas the latter influences the parenchyma exclusively. RESULTS: During 20 seconds of contralateral SNS, pial arterioles in the hindlimb somatosensory cortex dilated in a characteristic peak and shoulder pattern. As compared with mock cerebrospinal fluid alone, theophylline significantly (p<0.05) attenuated SNS-induced vasodilation (mean+/-standard deviation 8.1+/-2.5% vs 21.7+/-1.9%; 4 rats in each group). In contrast, CPX potentiated vasodilation significantly (p<0.05) during SNS (54.7+/-15.8% for the CPX group vs 20.1+/-1.9% for the controls; 5 rats in each group). The change in optical signal persisted after cessation of SNS in all the animals. Thus, the pattern of change of the optical signal was distinctly different from the pattern of changes in arteriolar diameter (which returned rapidly to baseline). Moreover, the optical signal during SNS was increased by 50% by theophylline and by almost 5-fold by CPX (p<0.05). The area of change of the intrinsic signal was also increased by the topical application of theophylline and CPX. The somatosensory evoked potential recordings revealed no significant changes after theophylline application, but CPX caused a small diminution of the N1 wave (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The noncongruent temporal profiles of the changes in pial arteriolar diameter and optical signal, imaged at 690 nm, indicate that the optical signal at 690 nm is not related to CBF. Alteration of adenosine receptor activity independently changed cortical activity, as measured by the optical signal, and CBF, as determined by pial arteriolar diameter. Manipulation of the adenosine receptor activity during increased cortical activity confirmed the temporal dissociation of optical signal and CBF and provided further evidence for the role of adenosine in regulating CBF.

Postischemic augmentation of conducted dilation in cerebral arterioles.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Conducted vasomotor responses likely play an important role in cerebrovascular regulation, but it is unclear how these responses may be affected by ischemia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the hypothesis that cerebral ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) alters vascular conduction in cerebral arterioles. METHODS: Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was induced by an intraluminal filament technique in 4 groups of rats: (A) 2-hour MCAO/24-hour reperfusion (n=14); (B) 2-hour MCAO/1-hour reperfusion (n=7); (C) 1-hour MCAO/24-hour reperfusion (n=6); and (D) 1-hour MCAO/1-hour reperfusion (n=5). Neurological status and infarction (2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining) were evaluated after I/R. Conducted vasomotor responses were assessed in intracerebral branches of the MCA, by following the longitudinal spread of vasodilation or vasoconstriction to localized microapplication of ATP or adenosine. RESULTS: Local microapplication of ATP evoked a biphasic constriction (17+/-3%) and dilation (7+/-2%) response, whereas adenosine elicited only dilation (11+/-2%). These local responses spread longitudinally along sham-control arterioles (1 mm conduction distance) with rapid spatial decay. Ischemia followed by 24-hour reperfusion (groups A and C) led to a marked potentiation of conducted dilation responses: dilation to ATP conducted with virtually no decay in I/R arterioles. Augmentation of conductivity was not observed in the 1-hour reperfusion groups (B and D). Moreover, I/R did not alter conducted constriction. CONCLUSIONS: Ischemia-reperfusion led to a specific augmentation of conducted vasodilation in cerebral arterioles. Presumably, enhanced conductivity may improve cerebral perfusion after ischemia.

Time-dependent alterations in functional and pharmacological arteriolar reactivity after subarachnoid hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Disturbances in cerebral arteriolar function, in addition to large vessel vasospasm, may be responsible for ischemia after subarachnoid hemorrhage. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that subarachnoid hemorrhage alters cerebral microvascular reactivity. METHODS: An endovascular filament model was used to induce subarachnoid hemorrhage in halothane-anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley rats. We evaluated pial arteriolar responses to sciatic nerve stimulation, topically applied vasoactive agents (adenosine or sodium nitroprusside), and CO(2) inhalation in rats subjected to subarachnoid hemorrhage at 1 to 5 days after insult. RESULTS: In sham-operated rats, sciatic nerve stimulation evoked a 23.5+/-1.8% increase in arteriolar diameter, which was significantly attenuated to 13.7+/-0.9%, 12.8+/-2.5%, and 18.8+/-2.9% at 24, 48, and 72 hours after subarachnoid hemorrhage, respectively (P<0.05; n> or =7). At 96 and 120 hours after subarachnoid hemorrhage, sciatic nerve stimulation-induced dilation recovered to sham levels. Somatosensory-evoked potentials were unaltered by subarachnoid hemorrhage. Pial vasodilatation to adenosine (10 micromol/L) and sodium nitroprusside (1 micromol/L) were significantly impaired, by 47% and 41%, respectively, at 48 hours after subarachnoid hemorrhage (P<0.05; n=7). In contrast, CO(2) reactivity was unaffected by subarachnoid hemorrhage. CONCLUSIONS: Pial arteriolar responses to cortical activation may be decreased in the initial 2 to 3 days after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Effect of caffeine on cerebral blood flow response to somatosensory stimulation.

Despite caffeine's wide consumption and well-documented psychoactive effects, little is known regarding the effects of caffeine on neurovascular coupling. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of caffeine, an adenosine receptor antagonist, on intracerebral arterioles in vitro and subsequently, on the pial circulation in vivo during cortical activation induced by contralateral sciatic nerve stimulation (SNS). In our in vitro studies, we utilized isolated intracerebral arterioles to determine the effects of caffeine (10 or 50 micromol/L) on adenosine-induced vasodilatation. At the lower concentration, caffeine was without effect, but at the higher concentration, caffeine produced significant attenuation. In our in vivo studies, we determined the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) caffeine concentrations at 15, 30, and 60 mins after intravenous administration of 5, 10 and 40 mg/kg. At the latter two concentrations, CSF levels exceeded 10 micromol/L. We then evaluated the pial arteriolar response during cortical activation caused by contralateral SNS after administering caffeine intravenously (0, 5, 10, 20 30, and 40 mg/kg). The pial circulation was observed through a closed cranial window in chloralose-anesthetized Sprague-Dawley rats. The contralateral sciatic nerve was isolated, positioned on silver electrodes and stimulated for 20 secs (0.20 V, 0.5 ms, and 5 Hz). Arteriolar diameter was quantified using an automated video dimension analyzer. Contralateral SNS resulted in a 23.8% +/-3.9% increase in pial arteriolar diameter in the hindlimb sensory cortex under control conditions. Intravenous administration of caffeine at the lowest dose studied (5 mg/kg) had no effect on either resting arteriolar diameter or SNS-induced vasodilatation. However, at higher doses (10, 20, 30, and 40 mg/kg, intravenously), caffeine significantly (P < 0.05; n = 6) attenuated both resting diameter and cerebral blood flow (CBF) responses to somatosensory stimulation. Intravenous administration of theophylline (10, 20, and 40 mg/kg), another adenosine receptor antagonist, also significantly reduced SNS-induced vasodilatation in a dose-dependent manner. Hypercarbic vasodilatation was unaffected by either caffeine or theophylline. The results of the present study show that caffeine significantly reduces cerebrovascular responses to both adenosine and to somatosensory stimulation and supports a role of adenosine in the regulation of CBF during functional neuronal activity.

Methods for isolation and characterization of intracerebral arterioles in the C57/BL6 wild-type mouse.

Vascular control mechanisms have been studied extensively in mice. However, an in vitro characterization of penetrating intracerebral arterioles has not been reported. We describe methods for isolation and cannulation for mouse intracerebral arterioles. This technique allows analysis of mouse cerebral arteriolar physiology and pharmacology without the confounding influences of the surrounding brain elements. Penetrating intracerebral arterioles from adult C57/BL6 wild-type (WT) mice were isolated at 4 degrees C, transferred to an inverted microscope and cannulated at both ends using a dual glass micropipette system, wherein intraluminal flow (0.2 microl/min) and pressure (60 mmHg) were maintained. The arterioles developed spontaneous tone when the chamber was warmed to 37 degrees C, with the resulting diameter reaching 68.4+/-0.9% of passive diameter (29.8+/-1.1 microm). After the development of spontaneous tone, incremental changes in luminal pressure from 20 to 140 mmHg induced myogenic responses. Acidosis (pH 6.8) and alkalosis (pH 7.6) caused dilation (20.0+/-1.4%) and constriction (17.2+/-1.4%), respectively. Extraluminal adenosine (ADO (10 microM); 24.3+/-3.6%) and sodium nitroprusside (SNP (10 microM); 28.6+/-4.1%) and intraluminal adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP (10 microM); 20.0+/-3.9%) resulted in vasodilation similar in magnitude to that observed in rat arterioles. This information provides a foundation for elucidating cerebral vascular control mechanisms in genetically engineered mice.

Impairment of intracerebral arteriole dilation responses after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Laboratory investigation.

OBJECT: Cerebrovascular dysfunction after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) may contribute to ischemia, but little is known about the contribution of intracerebral arterioles. In this study, the authors tested the hypothesis that SAH inhibits the vascular reactivity of intracerebral arterioles and documented the time course of this dysfunction. METHODS: Subarachnoid hemorrhage was induced using an endovascular filament model in halothane-anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley rats. Penetrating intracerebral arterioles were harvested 2, 4, 7, or 14 days postinsult, cannulated using a micropipette system that allowed luminal perfusion and control of luminal pressure, and evaluated for reactivity to vasodilator agents. RESULTS: Spontaneous tone developed in all pressurized (60 mm Hg) intracerebral arterioles harvested in this study (from 66 rats), with similar results in the sham and SAH groups. Subarachnoid hemorrhage did not affect dilation responses to acidic pH (6.8) but led to a persistent impairment of endothelium-dependent dilation responses to adenosine triphosphate (p < 0.01), as well as a transient attenuation (p < 0.05) of vascular smooth muscle-dependent dilation responses to adenosine, sodium nitroprusside, and 8-Br-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). Impairment of NO-mediated dilation was more sustained than adenosine- and 8-Br-cGMP-induced responses (up to 7 days postinsult compared with 2 days). All smooth muscle-dependent responses returned to sham levels by 14 days after SAH. CONCLUSIONS: Subarachnoid hemorrhage led to a persistent impairment of endothelium-dependent dilation and a transient attenuation of vascular smooth muscle-dependent dilation responses to adenosine. Impairment of NO-mediated dilation occurred when the response to cGMP was intact, suggesting a change in cGMP levels rather than an alteration in intracellular mechanisms downstream from cGMP.

Fetal alcohol exposure alters cerebrovascular reactivity to vasoactive intestinal peptide in adult sheep.

Chronic fetal alcohol exposure impairs neural and vascular development. We have previously shown that fetal alcohol exposure is associated with attenuated hypoxic cerebral vasodilation and reduced neuronal vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) expression in fetal sheep. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that fetal alcohol exposure alters vascular development, leading to altered cerebral vascular reactivity to VIP in adulthood. Penetrating intracerebral arterioles were harvested from the brains of adult (10-13 months old) offspring of ewes that had received intravenous infusions of alcohol (1.5 g/kg) or same-volume saline (90 min/day, 5 days/week) during days 30-82 of gestation (full term = 145 days). The isolated arterioles were cannulated with a micropipette system that allowed luminal perfusion and control of luminal pressure and developed spontaneous tone at 40 degrees C and 60 mm Hg luminal pressure. There was no difference in myogenic tone between arterioles exposed prenatally to alcohol (n = 18) and saline controls (n = 17). However, fetal alcohol exposure significantly (p = 0.03) enhanced the dilator responses of adult intracerebral arterioles to VIP [0.1 nM to 1 microM, logEC(50): -8.6 +/- 0.2 (alcohol) vs. -7.4 +/- 0.8 (saline)]. In contrast, there was no difference in dilator responses to H(+) (pH 6.8 buffer), to adenosine (10 nM to 0.1 mM), or to CGS21680 (an adenosine A(2A) receptor agonist, 0.01 nM to 10 microM). Thus, fetal alcohol exposure alters vasomotor sensitivity to VIP in adult intracerebral arterioles - perhaps a compensatory response to alcohol-induced underdevelopment of neurotransmitter pathways involved in cerebral vascular regulation.

Pial arteriole dilation during somatosensory stimulation is not mediated by an increase in CSF metabolites.

Pial arterioles supplying the hindlimb somatosensory cortex dilate in response to contralateral sciatic nerve stimulation. The mechanism of this pial vasodilation is not well understood. One possibility is that vasoactive metabolites released during brain activation may diffuse to subarachnoid cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to dilate pial vessels. To test this hypothesis, we implanted closed cranial windows in rats and measured pial arteriolar dilation to sciatic nerve stimulation during constant rate superfusion of the pial surface with artificial CSF. We reason that flushing the pial surface with CSF should quickly dissipate vasoactive substances and prevent these substances from dilating pial arterioles. CSF flow (1 and 1.5 ml/min) significantly reduced pial arteriole dilation induced by 5% CO2 inhalation, but the same flow rates did not affect dilator responses to sciatic nerve stimulation. We conclude that brain-to-CSF diffusion of vasoactive metabolites does not play a significant role in the dilation of pial arterioles during somatosensory activity.

Adenosine receptors mediate glutamate-evoked arteriolar dilation in the rat cerebral cortex.

We tested the hypothesis that adenosine (Ado) mediates glutamate-induced vasodilation in the cerebral cortex by monitoring pial arteriole diameter in chloralose-anesthetized rats equipped with closed cranial windows. Topical application of 100 microM glutamate and 100 microM N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) dilated pial arterioles (baseline diameter 25 +/- 2 microm) by 17 +/- 1% and 18 +/- 4%, respectively. Coapplication of the nonselective Ado receptor antagonist theophylline (Theo; 10 microM) significantly reduced glutamate- and NMDA-induced vasodilation to 4 +/- 2% (P < 0.01) and 6 +/- 2% (P < 0.05), whereas the Ado A(1) receptor antagonist 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (0.1 microM) had no effect. Moreover, application of the Ado A(2A) receptor-selective antagonist 4-(2-[7-amino-2-(2-furyl)(1,2,4)triazolo(2,3-a)(1,3,5)triazin-5-ylamino]ethyl)phenol (ZM-241385), either by superfusion (0.1 microM, 1 microM) or intravenously (1 mg/kg), significantly inhibited the pial arteriole dilation response to glutamate. Neither Theo nor ZM-241385 affected vascular reactivity to mild hypercapnia induced by 5% CO(2) inhalation. These results suggest that Ado contributes to the dilation of rat cerebral arterioles induced by exogenous glutamate, and that the Ado A(2A) receptor subtype may be involved in this dilation response.

cGMP-dependent and not cAMP-dependent kinase is required for adenosine-induced dilation of intracerebral arterioles.

Adenosine (ADO) is a potent cerebral vasodilator and has been proposed as a metabolic regulator of cerebral blood flow. However, the signal transduction pathway by which ADO causes vasodilation in cerebral microvessels is currently unknown. The current study was designed to investigate the role of cyclic nucleotides and cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinases in ADO-induced dilation of resistance-sized rat cerebral arterioles that develop spontaneous tone. Arterioles were cannulated and perfused intraluminally at constant flow (2 microl/min) and pressure (60 mm Hg). ADO (29.7 +/- 2.0%; 1 microM), CGS-21680 (16 +/- 4%, 1 microM), 8-bromo-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (8 Br-cGMP; 29.9 +/- 3.9%; 100 microM), sodium nitroprusside (SNP; 30.6 +/- 3.3%, 1 microM), cyclic guanine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase activator (Sp-8-pCPT-cGMPS, 25.9 +/- 4.2%; 10 microM), forskolin (30.5 +/- 5.9%; 0.1 microM), and pH 6.8 all produced large dilations. The selective cGMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor, Rp-8-pCPT-cGMPS (10 microM), had no effect on resting diameter or reactivity to acidic pH, but significantly ( < 0.05) attenuated arteriolar dilations to ADO (59%, n = 8), CGS-21680 (60%, n = 4), SNP (62%, n = 3), 8 Br-cGMP (88%, n = 3), and Sp-8-pCPT-cGMPS (98%, n = 3). H8, the less-selective cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinase inhibitor, had similar effects as Rp-8-pCPT-cGMPS. Additionally, the inhibitor of the soluble guanylate cyclase, 1H-[1,24]oxadiazolo-[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ), blocked the response to SNP (70% inhibition) and significantly inhibited the ADO response (43% inhibition). In contrast, inhibition of the cyclic ADO monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase Rp-8-CPT-cAMPS had no effect on the ADO, SNP, or pH responses, but significantly blocked forskolin-induced vasodilation (53%). It is concluded that ADO-induced vasodilation in cerebral microvessels, at least in part, involves cGMP and cGMP-dependent protein kinase, but not cAMP or cAMP-dependent kinase. Our data therefore provides a new insight into mechanisms by which ADO invokes vasodilation in cerebral microvascular arterioles.